A Selection of Mnemonics
As explained in What are Mnemonics? there is a number of distinct families into which mnemonic devices fall. Broadly speaking those on this website are: Rhymes and Catch Phrases, Spelling Acronyms, and List Order Acronyms. Examples of all can be found below. A separate section is dedicated to mnemonics used to memorise numbers.
Rhymes and Catch Phrases
The following rhyming phrase helps people to remember how to spell such difficult words as receive.
I before E, except after C.
Unfortunately this rule does not always apply. One common exception is the word weird, which has prompted some people to use the extended version of this mnemonic:
I before E, except after C.
And "weird" is just weird.
Sadly there are many, many more exceptions. Nevertheless this remains a very popular memory aid for spelling. The following adaptation is somewhat better:
I before E, except after C.
Or when sounded "A" as in neighbor and weigh.
Just don't rely on this one for spelling words like weir and seize!
The following mnemonic is used by pilots. If temperature or pressure drops, you will be lower (in altitude) than the aircraft's instruments suggest if they are left uncorrected. On the other hand, a rise in temperature or pressure will result in the opposite effect.
High to Low; look out below.
Low to High; clear blue sky.
This is somewhat reminiscent of these popular rhymes which guide people on what kind of weather red skies and rainbows generally herald depending on the time of day at which they are seen.
Red sky at night: shepherd's delight.
Red sky in the morning: shepherd's warning.
Rainbow in the morning: travellers take warning.
Rainbow at night: travellers' delight.
Rainbows indicate humid air. A morning rainbow is seen in the West – the direction from which storms generally come – and so often appears before bad weather. Evening rainbows, which appear in the East, usually indicate the passing of stormy weather.
Spelling Acronyms
The following mnemonics are sentences or phrases in which the initial letters of the words spell out a word which many people find rather tricky to spell.
BECAUSE
Big Elephants Can Always Understand Small Elephants
ARITHMETIC
A Rat In The House May Eat The Ice Cream
GEOGRAPHY
General Eisenhower's Oldest Girl Rode A Pony Home Yesterday
RHYTHM
Rhythm Helps Your Two Hips Move
NECESSARY
Not Every Cat Eats Sardines (Some Are Really Yummy)
ARGUMENT
A Rude Girl Undresses; My Eyes Need Taping!
OCEAN
Only Cats' Eyes Are Narrow
And a neat way to remember how to spell POTASSIUM: just remember one tea, two sugars. You can use a similar aide memoire to prevent confusion between DESERTS (like the Sahara) and DESSERTS (like Tiramisu) by remembering that the sweet one has two sugars.
List Order Acronyms
This is certainly one of the most popular mnemonic techniques.
Order of colours in the rainbow, or visual spectrum:
(Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet)
Richard Of York Gave Battle In Vain.
Order of taxonomy in biology:
(Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species)
Kids Prefer Cheese Over Fried Green Spinach.
Order of geological time periods:
(Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian, Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene, Recent)
Cows Often Sit Down Carefully. Perhaps Their Joints Creak?
Persistent Early Oiling Might Prevent Painful Rheumatism.
Order of Mohs hardness scale, from 1 to 10:
(Talc, Gypsum, Calcite, Fluorite, Apatite, Orthoclase feldspar, Quartz, Topaz, Corundum, Diamond)
Toronto Girls Can Flirt, And Other Queer Things Can Do.
The order of sharps in music, called the "circle of fifths":
(F, C, G, D, A, E, B)
Father Charles Goes Down And Ends Battle.
And in reverse for flat keys the mnemonic can be neatly reversed:
Battle Ends And Down Goes Charles' Father.
The notes represented by the lines on the treble clef stave (bottom to top):
(E, G, B, D, F)
Every Good Boy Deserves Favour.
And the notes represented by the spaces between the lines:
(F, A, C, E)
Furry Animals Cook Excellently. Or just the word FACE
The notes represented by the lines on the bass clef stave (bottom to top):
(G, B, D, F, A)
Good Boys Do Fine, Always.
And the notes represented by the spaces between the lines:
(A, C, E, G)
All Cows Eat Grass.
The order of planets in average distance from the Sun:
(Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto)
My Very Easy Method: Just Set Up Nine Planets.
More Mnemonics
Do you know any good mnemonics which you think belong on this page. If you'd like to share them with us, then we'd love to hear from you.
Also look at our mnemonics to remember numbers, our explanation of mnemonic devices, and our selection of mnemonics books in the online wordplay book store.
Spooner's Spoonerisms
fighting a liar lighting a fire
you hissed my mystery lecture you missed my history lecture
cattle ships and bruisers battle ships and cruisers
nosey little cook cosy little nook
a blushing crow a crushing blow
tons of soil sons of toil
our queer old Dean our dear old Queen
we'll have the hags flung out we'll have the flags hung out
you've tasted two worms you've wasted two terms
our shoving leopard our loving shepherd
a half-warmed fish a half-formed wish
is the bean dizzy? is the Dean busy?
More Funny Spoonerisms
know your blows - blow your nose
go and shake a tower go and take a shower
tease my ears ease my tears
nicking your pose picking your nose
you have very mad banners you have very bad manners
lack of pies pack of lies
it's roaring with pain it's pouring with rain
sealing the hick healing the sick
go help me sod so help me God
pit nicking nit picking
bowel feast foul beast
I'm a damp stealer I'm a stamp dealer
hypodemic nurdle hypodermic needle
wave the sails save the whales
chipping the flannel on TV flipping the channel on TV
mad bunny bad money
I'm shout of the hour I'm out of the shower
lead of spite speed of light
this is the pun fart this is the fun part
I hit my bunny phone I hit my funny bone
flutter by butterfly
bedding wells wedding bells
I must mend the sail I must send the mail
cop porn popcorn
it crawls through the fax it falls through the cracks
my zips are lipped my lips are zipped
bat flattery flat battery
would you like a nasal hut? would you like a hazel nut?
puke on coupon
belly jeans jelly beans
eye ball bye all
fight in your race right in your face
ready as a stock steady as a rock
no tails toe nails
hiss and lear listen here
soul of ballad bowl of salad
Cack of Pards Spoonerisms
Two of Hearts 2? Who of tarts?
Four of Hearts 4? Whore of farts
Eight of Hearts 8? Hate of Arts
Ten of Hearts 10? Hen of tarts
Ace of Spades A? Space of aids
Four of Spades 4? Spore of fades
Eight of Spades 8? Spate of AIDS
Four of Diamonds 4? Door of fireman's
Five of Diamonds 5? Dive of fireman's
Six of Diamonds 6? Dicks of Simon's
Two of Clubs 2? Clue of tubs
Five of Clubs 5? Clive of Fubbs
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Do you remember – when you were a child – learning (then gleefully reciting) what you thought was the longest word in the English language? Was it ANTIDISESTABLISHMENTARIANISM? Or the similarly long SUPERCALIFRAGILISTICEXPIALIDOCIOUS?
There are longer ones...
However, there is no easy answer that we can give when our visitors ask us for the longest word in the English language. Most very long words only occur in one or two dictionaries, and often they are debatably not words at all. For example, ANTIDISESTABLISHMENTARIANISM has possibly never really been used to mean "the belief which opposes removing the tie between church and state." Certainly 99 in 100 times it is used as an example of a long word. And who says you can't put NON– (for example) on the beginning to make it even longer?
This problem is even more evident in chemical names. Most chemicals are named using a systematic naming system which methodically describes the molecule's structure. Some molecules, such as proteins, are huge, so it is possible to come up with genuine words containing millions of letters. But of course no chemist uses these really long names in practice.
Here we look at some of the longest words in English dictionaries, and discuss whether they should be considered to be real words. Interesting long chemical terms and place names are listed separately afterwards. The red numbers indicate the length (number of letters) of the word that follows.
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Longest Words
(45) PNEUMONOULTRAMICROSCOPICSILICOVOLCANOCONIOSIS (also spelled PNEUMONOULTRAMICROSCOPICSILICOVOLCANOKONIOSIS) = a lung disease caused by breathing in particles of siliceous volcanic dust.
This is the longest word in any English dictionary. However, it was coined by Everett Smith, the President of The National Puzzlers' League, in 1935 purely for the purpose of inventing a new "longest word". The Oxford English Dictionary described the word as factitious. Nevertheless it also appears in the Webster's, Random House, and Chambers dictionaries.
(37) HEPATICOCHOLANGIOCHOLECYSTENTEROSTOMIES = a surgical creation of a connection between the gall bladder and a hepatic duct and between the intestine and the gall bladder.
This is the longest word in Gould's Medical Dictionary.
(34) SUPERCALIFRAGILISTICEXPIALIDOCIOUS = song title from the Walt Disney movie Mary Poppins.
It is in the Oxford English Dictionary.
"But then one day I learned a word
That saved me achin' nose,
The biggest word you ever 'eard,
And this is 'ow it goes:
Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious!"
(30) HIPPOPOTOMONSTROSESQUIPEDALIAN = pertaining to a very long word.
From Mrs. Byrne's Dictionary of Unusual, Obscure and Preposterous Words.
(29) FLOCCINAUCINIHILIPILIFICATION = an estimation of something as worthless.
This is the longest word in the first edition of the Oxford English Dictionary. Interestingly the most common letter in English, E, does not appear in this word at all, whilst I occurs a total of nine times. The word dates back to 1741. The 1992 Guinness Book of World Records calls floccinaucinihilipilification the longest real word in the Oxford English Dictionary, and refers to pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanokoniosis as the longest made-up one.
(28) ANTIDISESTABLISHMENTARIANISM = the belief which opposes removing the tie between church and state.
Probably the most popular of the "longest words" in recent decades.
(27) HONORIFICABILITUDINITATIBUS = honorableness.
The word first appeared in English in 1599, and in 1721 was listed by Bailey's Dictionary as the longest word in English. It was used by Shakespeare in Love's Labor's Lost (Costard; Act V, Scene I):
"O, they have lived long on the alms-basket of words.
I marvel thy master hath not eaten thee for a word;
for thou art not so long by the head as
honorificabilitudinitatibus: thou art easier
swallowed than a flap-dragon."
Shakespeare does not use any other words over 17 letters in length.
(27) ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHICALLY
The longest unhyphenated word in Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (10th Ed.), joint with ethylenediaminetetraacetate (see below).
(27) ANTITRANSUBSTANTIATIONALIST = one who doubts that consecrated bread and wine actually change into the body and blood of Christ.
(21) DISPROPORTIONABLENESS and (21) INCOMPREHENSIBILITIES
These are described by the 1992 Guinness Book of World Records as the longest words in common usage.
Some say SMILES is the longest word because there is a MILE between the first and last letters!
Place Names
There are many long place names around the world. Here are a few of the largest.
(85) TAUMATAWHAKATANGIHANGAKOAUAUOTAMATEATURIPUKAKAPIKIMAUNGAHORONUKUPOKAIWHENUAKITANATAHU
A hill in New Zealand. This Maori name was in general use, but is now generally abbreviated to Taumata. The name means: the summit of the hill, where Tamatea, who is known as the land eater, slid down, climbed up and swallowed mountains, played on his nose flute to his loved one.
(66) GORSAFAWDDACHAIDRAIGODANHEDDOGLEDDOLONPENRHYNAREURDRAETHCEREDIGION
A town in Wales. The name means: the Mawddach station and its dragon teeth at the Northern Penrhyn Road on the golden beach of Cardigan bay.
(58) LLANFAIRPWLLGWYNGYLLGOGERYCHWYRNDROBWLLLLANTYSILIOGOGOGOCH
A town in North Wales. The name roughly translates as: St. Mary's Church in the hollow of the white hazel near to the rapid whirlpool of Llantysilio of the red cave.
(41) CHARGOGAGOGMANCHARGOGAGOGCHARBUNAGUNGAMOG
Another name for Lake Webster in Massachusetts. Probably the longest name in the United States.
(23) NUNATHLOOGAGAMIUTBINGOI
The Eskimo name for some dunes in Alaska,
Consecutive Letters
Here is a selection of words interesting because of their letter sequences: consonant strings, rows of dots, alphabetic sequences, double letters, triple letters, and quadruple letter sequences. See also these sections: longest word, vowel records, amazing words, Scrabble game records, and Angry, Hungry, and GRY words.
Consonant Strings
Some common words with an uninterrupted string of five consonants are BACKSPLASH, BACKSTRETCH, BACKSTROKE, BIRTHPLACE, BREASTSTROKE, DOWNSTREAM, DOWNTHRUST, DUMBSTRUCK, EIGHTHS, ERSTWHILE, HEARTTHROB, LENGTHS, LIGHTPROOF, MATCHSTICK, NIGHTCLOTHES, NIGHTCLUB, NIGHTDRESS, POSTSCRIPT, STRENGTHS, THOUSANDTHS, THUMBSCREW, TWELFTHS, WARMTHS, and WITCHCRAFT. ANGSTS is the shortest word with five consonants in a row.
These words have six consecutive consonants: ARCHCHRONICLER, CATCHPHRASE, ESCHSCHOLTZIA, HANTZSCHIA, KNIGHTSBRIDGE, LATCHSTRING, POSTPHTHISIC, and WELTSCHMERZ. A popular staple food in Ukraine is a beetroot soup called borsch, which occurs in English dictionaries with a variety of spellings including borshch and borscht, giving rise to plurals containing a string of six consonants: BORSHCHS and BORSCHTS.
HIRSCHSPRUNG'S (DISEASE) has seven consecutive consonants, as does SCHTSCHUROWSKIA. The shortest such word is TSKTSKS. All of these words can be found in major English dictionaries.
Going Dotty
Beijing and Fiji have three dotted letters in a row. Other such words are remijia, bogijiab, pirijiri, kharijite, gaijin, Hajji, and hijinks. Ujiji has a string of four dots.
A property development company in the Canadian territory of Nunavut is the Katujjijiit Development Corporation, with six consecutive dotted letters.
In Hungarian, jöjjön (meaning "he should come") has seven dots in a row, if you allow diacritical marks. Incredibly, Finnish has a word with a continuous sequence of 14 dots: pääjääjää (meaning "the main stayer," partitive case).
Alphabetic Sequences
The alphabetical sequence –RSTU– is contained in OVERSTUFF, OVERSTUDIOUS, OVERSTUNK, UNDERSTUFF, UNDERSTUMBLE, SUPERSTUD, OVERSTUMBLE, SUPERSTUFF, UNDERSTUDY, and BIERSTUBE.
The only other four-letter alphabetical sequence found in English is –MNOP–, which is found, for example, in these words: CREMNOPHOBIA, GYMNOPAEDIC, GYMNOPHOBIA, GYMNOPLAST, LIMNOPHILE, LIMNOPHORA, LIMNOPHORID, LIMNOPLANKTON, SEMNOPITHECINE, SOMNOPATHY, and THAMNOPHILE.
If the alphabet is treated as a continuous loop, however, there is also –YZAB– in ANALYZABLE.
Double Letter Sequences
Here are some examples words containing double letters, for each letter of the alphabet: AARDVARK, ABBOT, ACCENT, ADD, FEED, OFF, EGG, WITHHOLD, SKIING, AVIJJA, BOOKKEEPER, ILL, IMMUNE, ANNOY, HOOP, APPLE, HUQQA, ARRAY, KISS, LITTLE, VACUUM, SAVVY, SLOWWORM, WAXXENN, CUBBYYEW, and DAZZLE.
Triple Letter Sequences
The following words contain triple letter sequences, uninterrupted by spaces or hyphens. They all appear in at least one English dictionary, but usually as an old spelling or rare variant: AAADONTA, FLYING JIBBBOOM, PEEENT, FREEER, FREEEST, ISHIII, FRILLLESS, WALLLESS, LAPAROHYSTEROSALPINGOOOPHORECTOMY, BRRR, GODDESSSHIP, COUNTESSSHIP, DUCHESSSHIP, GOVERNESSSHIP, HOSTESSSHIP, VERTUUUS, UUULA, and YAYYY.
Quadruple Letter Sequences
Amazingly, there are some sequences of four repeated letters in words in English dictionaries.
The first citation for "iiwi" in the Oxford English Dictionary is from 1779: "The birds of these islands are as beautiful as any we have seen... its native name is EEEEVE."
ESSSSE (an obsolete word meaning ashes) is in the second edition of the OED.
LLANFAIRPWLLGWYNGYLLGOGERYCHWYRNDROBWLLLLANTYSILIOGOGOGOCH, a town in North Wales, has been described here as having four consecutive Ls. However, in the Welsh alphabet, LL is one letter, entirely separate from L. So in fact this is a double LL rather than a quadruple LLLL as it appears in the English spelling.
BRRRR (an interjection expressive of shivering) is also in the second edition of the OED.
Vowels
Here is a collection of words notable for their vowels. Some have many, some have few; some contain them all, some contain none.
Note that we are talking about the five true vowels in the English alphabet: A, E, I, O, and U. Sometimes the consonant Y may be pronounced as a vowel, as may other letters in rare words, such as W in some words of Welsh origin.
Many Vowels
Words (found in major English dictionaries) consisting entirely of vowels include AA (a type of lava), AE, AI, AIEEE, IAO, OII, EAU, EUOUAE, OE, OO, I, O, A, IO, and UOIAUAI, the last of these being the longest vowel-only word (seven letters).
OUENOUAOU (a stream in the Philippines) has nine letters but only one consonant. It is the longest known place name with only a single consonant.
The English dictionary word with the most consecutive vowels (six) is EUOUAE. Words with five consecutive vowels include QUEUEING, AIEEE, COOEEING, MIAOUED, ZAOUIA, JUSSIEUEAN, ZOOEAE, ZOAEAE. The Hawaiian word HOOIAIOIA (meaning certified) has eight consecutive vowels and is listed in the 1976 Guinness Book of World Records. Allowing proper nouns, URU-EU-UAU-UAU (a language of Brazil) has nine vowels in a row, ignoring hyphens.
HONORIFICABILITUDINITATIBUS is the longest word consisting entirely of alternating vowels and consonants. Other such words are ALUMINOSILICATES, EPICORACOHUMERALER, HEXOSAMINIDASES, ICULANIBOKOLAS, PARAROSANILINES, PARASITOLOGICAL, VERISIMILITUDES. GORAN IVANESEVIC (a top tennis player) is the longest known celebrity name that alternates consonants and vowels. UNITED ARAB EMIRATES is the longest name of a country consisting of alternating vowels and consonants.
Few Vowels
The longest common word without any of the five vowels is RHYTHMS, but there are longer rare words: SYMPHYSY, NYMPHLY, GYPSYRY, GYPSYFY, and TWYNDYLLYNGS. WPPWRMWSTE and GLYCYRRHIZIN are long words with very few vowels.
ASTHMA begins and ends with a vowel and has no other vowels in between. Some less common long words with this property are ISTHMI (alternate plural of isthmus), APHTHA, and ELTCHI.
The longest word in dictionaries having only one vowel is STRENGTHS. The longest word with only one vowel (if repeats are allowed) is CHRONONHOTONTHOLOGOS (twenty letters). STRENGTHLESSNESSES contains only Es and is just two letters shorter.
The Five Vowels
The shortest word containing all five vowels exactly once is the six-letter EUNOIA, meaning alertness of mind an will (and also the title of a book by Canadian poet Christian Bok). However, it is not included in any major English dictionary. There are several seven-letter words containing all the vowels, including SEQUOIA, EULOGIA, MIAOUED, ADOULIE, EUCOSIA, EUNOMIA, EUTOPIA, MOINEAU, and DOULEIA. The relatively common French word OISEAU (meaning bird) contains all five vowels, once each.
The shortest word with the five vowels occurring in alphabetical order is AERIOUS (airy), which has seven letters. The longest such word is PHRAGELLIORHYNCHUS (a protozoan) with 18 letters. There are two seven-letter words in Portuguese that contain the five vowels in alphabetical order: ACEITOU and ALEIJOU.
SUOIDEA (the taxonomic group to which pigs belong) is the shortest word with the five vowels in reverse alphabetical order. The longest such word is PUNCTOSCHMIDTELLA (a crustacean).
ULTRAREVOLUTIONARIES has each vowel exactly twice. The shortest such word is CUBOIDEONAVICULARE, and the longest, USSOLZEWIECHINOGAMMARUS (a small crustacean).
Letter Frequencies
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Etaoin Shrdlu is a somewhat infamous phrase among language enthusiasts. It is pronounced "eh-tay-oh-in shird-loo" and is believed to be the twelve most common letters in English, in order of most frequently used to least frequently used. The expression came about from linotype typesetting machines. Were one to run a finger down the first and then second left-hand vertical banks of six keys on a linotype machine, it would produce the words "etaoin shrdlu." Linotype machines were sometimes tested in this manner. Once in a while, a careless linotype machine operator would fail to throw his test lines away, and that phrase would mysteriously show up in published material. The full sequence is "etaoin shrdlu cmfgyp wbvkxj qz."
When analyzing the frequency with which letters appear in English, it's important to understand whether you are factoring in the frequency with which individual words are used. For example, the letter 'h' is not found in a comparatively large number of English words, but as it appears in several of the most commonly used words, such as "the," "then," "there," and "that," it appears more often in every day speech and writing than it does in a list of dictionary words. The "etaoin shrdlu" sequence given above is based on the frequency of letters as they appear in speech and writing.
Letter Groupings
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Letters can be distinguished strictly by physical representation in a number of different ways. Sometimes groups of letters are given in the form of a puzzle, and you have to figure out the rule by which they are grouped. Below are several different letter groupings, which illustrate how many letters in the alphabet possess some particular characteristic. Some of the groupings below assume a sans-serif font.
Letters Rule
AEFHIKLMNTVWXYZ Letters drawn with only straight lines
COS Letters drawn with only curved lines
BDGJPQRU Letters drawn with straight and curved lines.
BDO Letters with no endpoints.
P Letters with one endpoint.
ACGIJLMNQRSUVWZ Letters with two endpoints.
EFTY Letters with three endpoints.
HKX Letters with four endpoints.
CEFGIJKLMNSTUVWXYZ Letters with no enclosed areas.
ADOPQR Letters with one enclosed area.
B Letters with two enclosed areas.
BCDEHIKOX Letters with horizontal symmetry.
AFGJLMNPQRSTUVWYZ Letters without horizontal symmetry.
AHIMOTUVWXY Letters with vertical symmetry.
BCDEFGJKLNPQRSZ Letters without vertical symmetry.
HIOX Letters with horizontal and vertical symmetry.
ABCDEFGJKLMNPQRSTUVWYZ Letters without horizontal and vertical symmetry.
HINOSXZ Letters with 180 degree rotational symmetry.
ABCDEFGJKLMPQRTUVWY Letters without 180 degree rotational symmetry.
BCDGIJLMNOPRSUVWZ Letters that can be drawn without taking pen off paper.
AEFHKQTXY Letters that can't be drawn without taking pen off paper.
COPSUVWXZ Capital letters that look like the corresponding lower case letters.
ABDEFGHIJKLMNQRTY Capital letters that don't look like the corresponding lower case letters.
IJ Letters that are dotted in lower case.
ABCDEFGHKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ Letters that aren't dotted in lower case.
BDFHKLT Letters that have ascenders in lower case.
ACEGIJMNOPQRSUVWXYZ Letters that have do not ascenders in lower case.
GJPQY Letters that have descenders in lower case.
ABCDEFHIKLMNORSTUVWXZ Letters that do not have descenders in lower case.
CDILMVX Letters that are Roman Numerals.
ABEFGHJKNOPQRSTUWYZ Letters that aren't Roman Numerals.
EHIS Letters that consist of just dots in Morse Code.
MOT Letters that consist of just dashes in Morse Code.
ABCDFGJKLNPQRUVWXYZ Letters that consist of both dots and dashes in Morse Code.
Collective Nouns
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One of the craziest oddities of the English language is that there are so many different collective nouns that all mean "group" but which are specific to what particular thing there is a group of: a herd of elephants, a crowd of people, a box of crayons, a pad of paper, etc. There is great diversity of collective nouns associated with animals, from a sleuth of bears to a murder of crows. The following is a list of the correct terms to describe groups of various types of animals.
herd of antelope
army of ants
colony of ants
swarm of ants
shrewdness of apes
flange of baboons
congress of baboons
tribe of baboons
culture of bacteria
cete of badgers
colony of badgers
sleuth of bears
sloth of bears
pack of bears (polar bears)
colony of beavers
lodge of beavers
flight of bees
grist of bees
hive of bees
swarm of bees
congregation of birds
dissimulation of birds
flight of birds
flock of birds
volery of birds
sedge of bitterns
siege of bitterns
herd of boar
singular of boar
sounder of boar
chain of bobolinks
brace of bucks
clash of bucks
herd of buffalo
rabble of butterflies
swarm of butterflies
wake of buzzards
flock of camels
army of caterpillars
clowder of cats
clutter of cats
glaring of cats
pounce of cats
dout of cats (house cats)
nuisance of cats (house cats)
kendle of cats (kittens)
kindle of cats (kittens)
litter of cats (kittens)
destruction of cats (wild cats)
drove of cattle
herd of cattle
kine of cattle
team of cattle
yoke of cattle (two)
herd of chamois
brood of chickens
flock of chickens
peep of chickens
brood of chicks
chattering of chicks
clutch of chicks
cartload of chimpanzees
herd of chinchillas
bed of clams
quiver of cobras
rag of colts
rake of colts
bury of conies
cover of coots
flight of cormorants
band of coyotes
sedge of cranes
siege of cranes
congregation of crocodiles
float of crocodiles
storytelling of crows
murder of crows
herd of deer
leash of deer
parcel of deer
bevy of deer (roe deer)
kennel of dogs
pack of dogs
litter of dogs (puppies)
pod of dolphins
drove of donkeys
herd of donkeys
pace of donkeys
trip of dotterel
bevy of doves
cote of doves
dole of doves
dule of doves
flight of doves
piteousness of doves
flight of dragons
weyr of dragons
wing of dragons
brace of ducks
flock of ducks
flush of ducks
paddling of ducks
raft of ducks
team of ducks
aerie of eagles
convocation of eagles
swarm of eels
herd of elephants
memory of elephants
parade of elephants
gang of elk
herd of elk
mob of emus
business of ferrets
cast of ferrets
fesnying of ferrets
charm of finches
catch of fish
haul of fish
run of fish
school of fish
shoal of fish
swarm of flies
lead of foxes
leash of foxes
skulk of foxes
army of frogs
colony of frogs
knot of frogs
flock of geese
gaggle of geese
skein of geese (in flight)
wedge of geese (flying in a 'V')
horde of gerbils
corps of giraffes
herd of giraffes
tower of giraffes
cloud of gnats
horde of gnats
swarm of gnats
herd of gnus
implausibility of gnus
drove of goats
herd of goats
tribe of goats
trip of goats
charm of goldfinches
glint of goldfish
band of gorillas
skein of goslings
leash of greyhounds
covey of grouse
pack of grouse
colony of gulls
group of guinea pigs
horde of hamsters
drove of hares
down of hares
husk of hares
leash of hares
trace of hares
trip of hares
warren of hares
aerie of hawks
cast of hawks
kettle of hawks
array of hedgehogs
prickle of hedgehogs
brood of hens
hedge of herons
sedge of herons
siege of herons
shoal of herrings
crash of hippopotami
herd of hippopotami
bloat of hippopotami
drift of hogs
parcel of hogs
passel of hogs
nest of hornets
harras of horses
herd of horses
stable of horses
team of horses
troop of horses
cry of hounds
mute of hounds
pack of hounds
charm of hummingbirds
clan of hyenas
band of jays
party of jays
scold of jays
smack of jellyfish
herd of kangaroos
mob of kangaroos
troop of kangaroos
deceit of lapwings
ascension of larks
exaltation of larks
leap of leopards
leep of leopards
lepe of leopards
pride of lions
sault of lions
sowse of lions
troop of lions
lounge of lizards
herd of llamas
plague of locusts
tidings of magpies
sord of mallards
stud of mares
richness of martens
horde of mice
mischief of mice
nest of mice
company of moles
labor of moles
movement of moles
cartload of monkeys
tribe of monkeys
troop of monkeys
troup of monkeys
herd of moose
barren of mules
pack of mules
rake of mules
span of mules
watch of nightingales
bevy of otter
family of otter
raft of otter
romp of otter
parliament of owls
drove of oxen
herd of oxen
span of oxen
team of oxen
yoke of oxen (two)
bed of oysters
company of parrots
covey of partridges
muster of peacocks
ostentation of peacocks
colony of penguins
crèche of penguins
huddle of penguins
parcel of penguins
rookery of penguins
nest of pheasants
nide of pheasants (on the ground)
nye of pheasants (on the ground)
bouquet of pheasants (when flushed)
flight of pigeons
flock of pigeons
drove of pigs
herd of pigs
litter of pigs
farrow of pigs (piglets)
sounder of pigs (wild pigs)
shoal of pilchards
congregation of plovers
wing of plovers
chine of polecats
string of ponies
pod of porpoises
school of porpoises
passel of possum
coterie of prairie dogs
bevy of quail
covey of quail
bury of rabbits
colony of rabbits
down of rabbits
drove of rabbits
husk of rabbits
leash of rabbits
trace of rabbits
trip of rabbits
warren of rabbits
nest of rabbits (young)
wrack of rabbits (young)
gaze of raccoons
nursery of raccoons
colony of rats
horde of rats
mischief of rats
pack of rats
plague of rats
swarm of rats
rhumba of rattlesnakes
storytelling of ravens
unkindness of ravens
crash of rhinoceri
building of rooks
clamor of rooks
storytelling of rooks
run of salmon
school of salmon
shoal of salmon
bob of seals
colony of seals
crash of seals
harem of seals
herd of seals
pod of seals
rookery of seals
spring of seals
team of seals
school of shark
shiver of shark
down of sheep
drove of sheep
flock of sheep
fold of sheep
hurtle of sheep
trip of sheep
bed of snakes
den of snakes
nest of snakes
pit of snakes
walk of snipes
wisp of snipes
host of sparrows
dray of squirrels
scurry of squirrels
murmuration of starlings
muster of storks
mustering of storks
flight of swallows
bevy of swans
herd of swans
wedge of swans (flying in a 'V')
flock of swifts
drift of swine
sounder of swine
spring of teals
ambush of tigers
streak of tigers
knot of toads
hover of trout
flock of turkeys
brood of turkeys (immature)
bale of turtles
generation of vipers
nest of vipers
colony of vultures
mob of wallabees
herd of walruses
pod of walruses
pack of weasels
sneak of weasels
gam of whales
herd of whales
pod of whales
school of whales
plump of wildfowl
herd of wolves
pack of wolves
rout of wolves
route of wolves
warren of wombats
fall of woodcocks
descent of woodpeckers
herd of yaks
herd of zebras
zeal of zebras
Spelling: Common Words that Sound Alike
Many words sound alike but mean different things when put into writing. This list will help you distinguish between some of the more common words that sound alike.
Forms to remember
Accept, Except
accept = verb meaning to receive or to agree: He accepted their praise graciously.
except = preposition meaning all but, other than: Everyone went to the game except Alyson.
For more information on these words, plus exercises, see our document on accept/except and affect/effect.
Affect, Effect
affect = verb meaning to influence: Will lack of sleep affect your game?
effect = noun meaning result or consequence: Will lack of sleep have an effect on your game?
effect = verb meaning to bring about, to accomplish: Our efforts have effected a major change in university policy.
A memory-help for affect and effect is is RAVEN: Remember, Affect is a Verb and Effect is a Noun.
For more information on these words, plus exercises, see our document on accept/except and affect/effect.
Advise, Advice
advise = verb that means to recommend, suggest, or counsel: I advise you to be cautious.
advice = noun that means an opinion or recommendation about what could or should be done: I'd like to ask for your advice on this matter.
Conscious, Conscience
conscious = adjective meaning awake, perceiving: Despite a head injury, the patient remained conscious.
conscience = noun meaning the sense of obligation to be good: Chris wouldn't cheat because his conscience wouldn't let him.
Idea, Ideal
idea = noun meaning a thought, belief, or conception held in the mind, or a general notion or conception formed by generalization: Jennifer had a brilliant idea -- she'd go to the Writing Lab for help with her papers!
ideal = noun meaning something or someone that embodies perfection, or an ultimate object or endeavor: Mickey was the ideal for tutors everywhere.
ideal = adjective meaning embodying an ultimate standard of excellence or perfection, or the best; Jennifer was an ideal student.
Its, It's
its = possessive adjective (possesive form of the pronoun it): The crab had an unusual growth on its shell.
it's = contraction for it is or it has (in a verb phrase): It's still raining; it's been raining for three days. (Pronouns have apostrophes only when two words are being shortened into one.)
Lead, Led
lead = noun referring to a dense metallic element: The X-ray technician wore a vest lined with lead.
led = past-tense and past-participle form of the verb to lead, meaning to guide or direct: The evidence led the jury to reach a unanimous decision.
Than, Then
Than
used in comparison statements: He is richer than I.
used in statements of preference: I would rather dance than eat.
used to suggest quantities beyond a specified amount: Read more than the first paragraph.
Then
a time other than now: He was younger then. She will start her new job then.
next in time, space, or order: First we must study; then we can play.
suggesting a logical conclusion: If you've studied hard, then the exam should be no problem.
Their, There, They're
Their = possessive pronoun: They got their books.
There = that place: My house is over there. (This is a place word, and so it contains the word here.)
They're = contraction for they are: They're making dinner. (Pronouns have apostrophes only when two words are being shortened into one.)
To, Too, Two
To = preposition, or first part of the infinitive form of a verb: They went to the lake to swim.
Too = very, also: I was too tired to continue. I was hungry, too.
Two = the number 2: Two students scored below passing on the exam.
Two, twelve, and between are all words related to the number 2, and all contain the letters tw.
Too can mean also or can be an intensifier, and you might say that it contains an extra o ("one too many")
We're, Where, Were
We're = contraction for we are: We're glad to help. (Pronouns have apostrophes only when two words are being shortened into one.)
Where = location: Where are you going? (This is a place word, and so it contains the word here.)
Were = a past tense form of the verb be: They were walking side by side.
Your, You're
Your = possessive pronoun: Your shoes are untied.
You're = contraction for you are: You're walking around with your shoes untied. (Pronouns have apostrophes only when two words are being shortened into one.)
One Word or Two?
All ready/already
all ready: used as an adjective to express complete preparedness
already: an adverb expressing time
At last I was all ready to go, but everyone had already left.
All right/alright
all right: used as an adjective or adverb; older and more formal spelling, more common in scientific & academic writing: Will you be all right on your own?
alright: Alternate spelling of all right; less frequent but used often in journalistic and business publications, and especially common in
fictional dialogue: He does alright in school.
All together/altogether
all together: an adverb meaning considered as a whole, summed up: All together, there were thirty-two students at the museum.
altogether: an intensifying adverb meaning wholly, completely, entirely: His comment raises an altogether different problem.
Anyone/any one
anyone: a pronoun meaning any person at all: Anyone who can solve this problem deserves an award.
any one: a paired adjective and noun meaning a specific item in a group; usually used with of: Any one of those papers could serve as an example.
Note: There are similar distinctions in meaning for everyone and every one
Anyway/any way
anyway: an adverb meaning in any case or nonetheless: He objected, but she went anyway.
any way: a paired adjective and noun meaning any particular course, direction, or manner: Any way we chose would lead to danger.
Awhile/a while
awhile: an adverb meaning for a short time; some readers consider it nonstandard; usually needs no preposition: Won't you stay awhile?
a while: a paired article and noun meaning a period of time; usually used with for: We talked for a while, and then we said good night.
Maybe/may be
maybe: an adverb meaning perhaps: Maybe we should wait until the rain stops.
may be: a form of the verb be: This may be our only chance to win the championship.
Spelling: IE/EI
Rule
Write I before E
Except after C
Or when it sounds like an A
As in "neighbor" and "weigh"
i before e: relief, believe, niece, chief, sieve, frieze, field, yield
e before i: receive, deceive, ceiling, conceit, vein, sleigh, freight, eight
Exceptions
seize, either, weird, height, foreign, leisure, conscience, counterfeit, forfeit, leisure, neither, science, species, sufficient
Plurals of nouns can be created in the following ways:
1. Add an -s to form the plural of most words.
elephant--elephants
stereo--stereos
2. For words that end in a "hissing" sound (-s, -z, -x, -ch, -sh), add an -es to form the plural.
box--boxes
church--churches
3. If the word ends in a vowel plus -y (-ay, -ey, -iy, -oy, -uy), add an -s to the word.
tray--trays
key--keys
4. If the word ends in a consonant plus -y, change the -y into -ie and add an -s to form the plural.
enemy--enemies
baby--babies
5. For words that end in -is, change the -is to -es to make the plural form.
synopsis--synopses
thesis--theses
6. Some words that end in -f or -fe have plurals that end in -ves.
knife--knives
self--selves
7. The plurals of words ending in -o are formed by either adding -s or by adding -es. The plurals of many words can be formed either way. To determine whether a particular word ends in -s or -es (or if the word can be spelled either way), check your dictionary or the list below. There are two helpful rules:
a. All words that end in a vowel plus -o (-ao, -eo, -io, -oo, -uo) have plurals that end in just -s:
stereo--stereos
studio--studios
duo--duos
b. All musical terms ending in -o have plurals ending in just -s.
piano--pianos
cello--cellos
solo--solos
c. Plural forms of words ending in -o:
-os
albinos
armadillos
autos
bravos
broncos
cantos
casinos
combos
gazebos
infernos
kimonos
logos
maraschinos
ponchos
sombreros
tacos
torsos
tobaccos
typos
-oes
echoes
embargoes
heroes
potatoes
tomatoes
torpedoes
vetoes
-os or -oes
avocados/oes
buffaloes/os
cargoes/os
desperadoes/os
dodoes/os
dominoes/os
ghettos/oes
grottoes/os
hoboes/os
innuendoes/os
lassos/oes
mangoes/os
mosquitoes/os
mottoes/os
mulattos/oes
noes/os
palmettos/oes
peccadilloes/os
tornadoes/os
volcanoes/os
zeros/oes
8. The plurals of single capital letters, acronyms, and Arabic numerals (1,2,3,...) take an -s WITHOUT an apostrophe:
Z (the capital letter Z)--Zs
UPC (Universal Product Code)--UPCs
ATM (Automatic Teller Machine)--ATMs
GUI (Graphical User Interface)--GUIs
3 (the Arabic numeral 3)--3s
Spelling: -ible vs. -able
Rule
-ible -able
If the root is not a complete word, add -ible.
aud + ible = audible
Examples:
visible
horrible
terrible
possible
edible
eligible
incredible
permissible
If the root is a complete word, add -able.
accept + able = acceptable
Examples:
fashionable
laughable
suitable
dependable
comfortable
If the root is a complete word ending in -e, drop the final -e and add -able.
excuse - e+ able = excusable
Examples:
advisable
desirable
valuable
debatable
Some exceptions:
contemptible
digestible
flexible
responsible
irritable
inevitable
