Amazing Language Facts
There are more than 2,700 languages in the world. In addition, there are more than 7,000 dialects. A dialect is a regional variety of a language that has a different pronunciation, vocabulary, or meaning.
The most difficult language to learn is Basque, which is spoken in northwestern Spain and southwestern France. It is not related to any other language in the world. It has an extremely complicated word structure and vocabulary.
All pilots on international flights identify themselves in English.
Somalia is the only African country in which the entire population speaks the same language, Somali.
The language in which a government conducts business is the official language of that country.
More than 1,000 different languages are spoken on the continent of Africa.
Many languages in Africa include a “click” sound that is pronounced at the same time as other sounds. You must learn these languages in childhood to do it properly.
Language Trivia
"Euouae," a medieval music term, is the longest word in English that contains only vowels. It’s also the word with the most consecutive vowels.
"Screeched," which means to make a harsh sound, is the longest one-syllable word in English.
"Unprosperousness", meaning not wealthy or profitable, is the longest word in English in which each letter is used at least two times.
The words "facetiously," "abstemiously," and "arseniously," each contain all six vowels (including “y”) in alphabetical order. The word "duoliteral" contains all five vowels (not including “y”) in reverse alphabetical order.
At 45 letters, "pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis," which refers to a lung disease, is often considered the longest word in English.
"Feedback" is the shortest word in English that has the letters a, b, c, d, e, and f.
"Floccinaucinihilipilification," is the longest word in English that does not contain letter “e”
No words in English rhyme with: "month," "orange," "silver," or "purple."
“Q” is the only letter that does not occur in any of the U.S. state names.
"Maine" is the only U.S. state whose name is just one syllable.
"Bookkeeper" is the only English word that has three consecutive double letters.
The word “therein” contains only seven letters, but it contains 10 words that can be formed using consecutive letters: the, there, I, he, in, rein, her, here, ere, herein.
The sentence “The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog” is a pangram, which is a sentence that uses every letter of the alphabet.
"United Arab Emirates," a small country in the Middle East, is made up of alternating vowels and consonants. It is the longest name of a country whose letters do that.
Most Widely Spoken Languages
in the World
Language Approx. number
of speakers
1. Chinese (Mandarin) 1,075,000,000
2. English 514,000,000
3. Hindustani1 496,000,000
4. Spanish 425,000,000
5. Russian 275,000,000
6. Arabic 256,000,000
7. Bengali 215,000,000
8. Portuguese 194,000,000
9. Malay-Indonesian 176,000,000
10. French 129,000,000
Idioms and Proverbs
If you say, “The cat's out of the bag” instead of “The secret is given away,” you're using an idiom. The meaning of an idiom is different from the actual meaning of the words used. “An apple a day keeps the doctor away” is a proverb. Proverbs are old but familiar sayings that usually give advice. Both idioms and proverbs are part of our daily speech. Many are very old and have interesting histories. See how many of these sayings you know.
“An apple a day keeps the doctor away.”
This proverb comes from the ancient Romans, who believed the apple had magical powers to cure illness. In fact, apples are filled with vitamin C, protein, pectin, natural sugars, copper, and iron. They do promote health.
To “climb on the bandwagon.”
Long ago, bands on the platforms of traveling wagons played music to announce a parade or political speech. To show their support, people would often jump onto the platform and join the band. Today, this idiom usually refers to someone who hopes to benefit from supporting another person's idea.
“Saved by the bell.”
In 17th-century England, a guard at Windsor Castle was accused of falling asleep at his post. He claimed he was wrongly accused and could prove it; he had heard the church bell chime 13 times at midnight. Townspeople supported his claim and he was not executed. Today we think of the bell that ends a round in boxing, often saving the boxer from injury, or the bell at the end of a class period, saving you from more work. Regardless, this idiom means rescue from a situation at the last possible moment.
“Bury the hatchet.”
Native Americans used to bury weapons to show that fighting had ended and enemies were now at peace. Today, the idiom means to make up with a friend after an argument or fight.
To “have a chip on one's shoulder.”
In nineteenth-century America, a boy who thought he was pretty tough would put a wood chip on his shoulder and dare anyone to knock it off. Today the idiom refers to anyone who is “touchy” or takes offense easily.
Bakers once gave an extra roll for every dozen sold, so a baker's dozen is 13.
“A close shave.”
In the past, student barbers learned to shave on customers. If they shaved too close, their clients might be cut or even barely escape serious injury. Today, we use this idiom if a person narrowly escapes disaster.
“Dot the i's and cross the t's.”
When only handwritten documents were used, it was very important for the clerk to write everything properly, especially letters like i and t, which could easily be confused. The idiom has since come to mean paying attention to every little detail.
“He who pays the piper calls the tune.”
In medieval times, people were entertained by strolling musicians. Whoever paid the price could choose the music. This proverb means that whoever pays is in charge.
“The pen is mightier than the sword.”
In seventeenth-century England, a free press was banned by the government. This meant that people who disagreed with the government and printed their views were punished. In spite of this, people published their ideas and opinions in illegal pamphlets that were distributed to the public. The proverb means that the written expression of ideas cannot be stopped by physical force.
“The pot calling the kettle black.”
In the seventeenth century, both pots and kettles turned black because they were used over open fires. Today, this idiom means criticizing someone else for a fault of one's own.
“Raining cats and dogs.”
In Norse mythology, the dog is associated with wind and the cat with storms. This expression means it's raining very heavily.
To “shed crocodile tears.”
Crocodiles have a reflex that causes their eyes to tear when they open their mouths. This makes it look as though they are crying while devouring their prey. In fact, neither crocodiles nor people who shed “crocodile” tears feel sorry for their actions.
“Clean bill of health.”
When a doctor gives you a “clean bill of health,” you know that you’re perfectly healthy. In the past, when a ship left a port, it was given a Bill of Health if there were no epidemics in the area from which it left.
“Close but no cigar.”
Years ago, cigars were often given as prizes in contests at fairs and carnivals. When a player almost won, the person running the game would say, “Close but no cigar.”
“Cut from the same cloth.”
This means that a person is very similar to another. When making suits, tailors use fabric from the same piece of cloth to make sure the pieces match perfectly.
“Strike while the iron’s hot.”
When you do this, you’re taking advantage of a good opportunity. Blacksmiths must shape iron into objects during the brief time it’s red-hot.
Acronyms and Other “Onyms”
How many words can you think of that end in -onym? Antonym and synonym are two. Antonyms are words with opposite meanings. Synonyms are words that mean the same thing. The ending, or suffix, comes from the Greek word onyma, which means “name.” Words that end in -onym are names for a type of word.
Acronym
A word or name formed by combining the first letters or groups of letters from a phrase. For example, SCUBA comes from self-contained underwaterbreathing apparatus.
Aptronym
A name that's especially suited to the profession of its owner. For example, Sally Ride, the astronaut.
Capitonym
A word that takes on a new meaning when capitalized. For example, polish (pol-ish), Polish (Polish).
Charactonym
The name of a literary character that especially suits his or her personality. For example, Charles Dickens's Scrooge is a miser.
Eponym
A real or mythical person from whose name a place, a thing, or an event is taken. The earl of Sandwich, for example, the first person to ask for meat between two slices of bread, is the eponym of the modern sandwich.
Heteronym
Two or more words with identical spelling but different meaning and pronunciation. There are so many bows. How about bow and arrow? Bow of a boat?
Homonym
Words that sound alike (and are sometimes spelled alike) but name different things. For example, die (to stop living) and dye (color).
Pseudonym
From the Greek pseud (false) and onym (name), a false name or pen name, used by an author. Mark Twain is a pseudonym for Samuel Langhorne Clemens.
Toponym
A place name or word that began as the name of a place, such as hamburger (from Hamburg, Germany) and afghan (a soft blanket from Afghanistan).
A palindrome is a word, phrase, or sentence that reads the same forward and backward. Here are some examples of palindromes.
A Santa at NASA.
Civic
Dad
Dee saw a seed.
Hannah
Kayak
Madam
Never odd or even
Nurses run.
radar
Rise to vote, sir.
Was it a cat I saw?
Anagrams
An anagram is a word, phrase or sentence formed by rearranging another word or group of words. Here are a few examples.
admirer married
angel glean
dance caned
funeral real fun
listen silent
seminola is no meal
senator treason
teachers cheaters
the eyes they see
the Morse Code here come dots
Greetings Around the World
Some people shake hands, some kiss and hug. Others just say hello. These exchanges are common in the U.S., but how do people in other countries greet each other? In most of Europe, a handshake will do.
A Few of the Ways to Say Hello in Asia
Country Gesture
China a nod or bow
Hong Kong (older Chinese) clasp hands together at throat level and nod
India palms together as though praying and bend or nod, called namaste
Indonesia say selamat, which means peace
Japan bow from the waist, palms on thighs, heels together
Korea a slight bow and handshake (right hand in one or both hands)
Malaysia both hands touch other person's hands, then are brought back to the breast, called salame gesture
Philippines a limp handshake
Sri Lanka place palms together under chin and bow slightly
Thailand place palms together, elbows down, and bow head slightly, called wai
In Malaysia people greet each other by saying “Where are you going?” Because it is not really a question, the polite response is “Just for a walk.”
Say Thank You
It's what your parents always remind you to say. Now you can dazzle your friends and relatives by saying it in 26 different languages.
Language Thank you Pronunciation
Afrikaans dankie dahn-kee
Arabic shukran shoe-krahn
Australian English ta (informal)
Chinese, Cantonese do jeh daw-dyeh
Chinese, Mandarin xie xie syeh-syeh
Czech dêkuji deh-ku-yih
Danish tak tahg
Finnish kiitos kee-toas
French merci mehr-see
German danke dahn-kah
Greek efharisto ef-har-rih-stowe
Hebrew toda toh-dah
Hindi, Hindustani sukria shoo-kree-a
Indonesian/Malayan terima kasih t'ree-ma kas-seh
Italian grazie gra-see
Japanese arigato ahree-gah-tow
Korean kamsa hamnida kahm-sah=ham-nee-da
Norwegian takk tahk
Philippines (Tagalog) salamat po sah-lah-maht poh
Polish dziekuje dsyen-koo-yeh
Portuguese obrigado oh-bree-gah-doh
Russian spasibo spah-see-boh
Spanish gracias gra-see-us
Sri Lanka (Sinhak) istutiy isst-too-tee
Swahili asante ah-sahn-teh
Swedish tack tahkk
Thai kawp-kun krap/ka' kowpkoom-krahp/khak
Turkish tesekkür ederim teh-sheh-kur=eh-deh-rim
Saying “Merry Christmas” or “Season's Greetings”Around the World
Ways to say "Merry Christmas" or "Season's Greetings" in such languages as Afrikaans, Danish, Hindi, Korean, Norwegian, Polish, Swahili, Thai, and more.
Language Merry Christmas
Afrikaans Gesëende Kersfees
Czech Prejeme Vam Vesele Vanoce a stastny Novy Rok
Danish Glædelig Jul
Esperanto Gajan Kristnaskon
Finnish Hyvää Joulua
French Joyeux Noël
German Froehliche Weihnachten
Greek Kala Christouyenna
Hawaiian Mele Kalikimaka
Hindi Bada Din Mubarak Ho
Icelandic Gledileg Jol
Irish Nollaig Shona Dhuit
Italian Buon Natale or Buone Feste Natalizie
Japanese Shinnen omedeto. Kurisumasu Omedeto
Korean Sung Tan Chuk Ha
Latin Natale hilare
Lithuanian Linksmu Kaledu
Maori Meri Kirihimete
Norwegian God Jul
Polish Wesolych Swiat Bozego Narodzenia
Portuguese Feliz Natal
Russian Srozhdestovm Kristovim
Spanish Feliz Navidad
Swahili Kuwa na Krismasi njema
Tagalog Maligayang Pasko
Thai Suksun Wan Christmas
Vietnamese Chuc Mung Giang Sinh
Welsh Nadolig Llawen
Saying “Happy New Year!” Around the World
Ways to say "Happy New Year" in such languages as Arabic, Chinese (Cantonese and Mandarin), French, Hebrew, Korean, Swedish, Vietnamese, and more.
Language Happy New Year!
Afrikaans Voorspoedige nuwe jaar
Arabic Kul 'am wa antum bikhair
Basque Urte Berri on
Bengali Shuvo noboborsho
Chinese (Cantonese) Sun nien fai lok
Chinese (Mandarin) Xin nian yu kuai
Czech Stastny Novy Rok
Danish Godt NytÅr
Dutch Gelukkig nieuwjaar
Esperanto Bonan Novjaron
Finnish Onnellista uutta vuotta
French Bonne année
German Ein glückliches neues Jahr
Greek Eutychismenos o kainourgios chronos
Hawaiian Hauoli Makahiki hou
Hebrew Shana Tova
Hungarian Boldog uj evet
Indonesian (Bahasa) Selamat Tahun Baru
Italian Felice Anno Nuovo or Buon anno
Japanese Akemashite Omedetou Gozaimasu
Korean Sehe Bokmanee Bateuseyo
Laotian (Hmong) Nyob Zoo Xyoo Tshiab
Latin Felix sit annus novus
Nigerian (Hausa) Barka da sabuwar shekara
Norwegian Godt Nytt År
Philippines (Tagalog) Manigong Bagong Taon
Polish Szczesliwego Nowego Roku
Romanian La Multi Ani si Un An Nou Fericit
Samoan Ia manuia le Tausaga Fou
Spanish Feliz año nuevo
Swahili Heri za Mwaka Mpya
Swedish Gott Nytt År
Thai Sawatdee Pi Mai
Vietnamese Chuc mung nam moi
Welsh Blwyddyn Newydd Dda
2012 is a leap year, which means that it has 366 days instead of the usual 365 days that an ordinary year has. An extra day is added in a leap year—February 29 —which is called an intercalary day or a leap day.
Why is a Leap Year Necessary?
Leap years are added to the calendar to keep it working properly. The 365 days of the annual calendar are meant to match up with the solar year. A solar year is the time it takes the Earth to complete its orbit around the Sun — about one year. But the actual time it takes for the Earth to travel around the Sun is in fact a little longer than that—about 365 ¼ days (365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, and 46 seconds, to be precise). So the calendar and the solar year don't completely match—the calendar year is a touch shorter than the solar year.
It may not seem like much of a difference, but after a few years those extra quarter days in the solar year begin to add up. After four years, for example, the four extra quarter days would make the calendar fall behind the solar year by about a day. Over the course of a century, the difference between the solar year and the calendar year would become 25 days! Instead of summer beginning in June, for example, it wouldn't start until nearly a month later, in July. As every kid looking forward to summer vacation knows—calendar or no calendar—that's way too late! So every four years a leap day is added to the calendar to allow it to catch up to the solar year.
A Quick History Lesson
The Egyptians were the first to come up with the idea of adding a leap day once every four years to keep the calendar in sync with the solar year. Later, the Romans adopted this solution for their calendar, and they became the first to designate February 29 as the leap day.
But Wait! It's Not Quite that Simple!
The math seems to work out beautifully when you add an extra day to the calendar every four years to compensate for the extra quarter of a day in the solar year. As we said earlier, however, the solar year is just about 365 ¼ days long, but not exactly! The exact length of a solar year is actually 11 minutes and 14 seconds less than 365 ¼ days. That means that even if you add a leap day every four years, the calendar would still overshoot the solar year by a little bit—11 minutes and 14 seconds per year. These minutes and seconds really start to add up: after 128 years, the calendar would gain an entire extra day. So, the leap year rule, "add a leap year every four years" was a good rule, but not good enough!
Calendar Correction, Part II
To rectify the situation, the creators of our calendar (the Gregorian calendar, introduced in 1582) decided to omit leap years three times every four hundred years. This would shorten the calendar every so often and rid it of the annual excess of 11 minutes and 14 seconds. So in addition to the rule that a leap year occurs every four years, a new rule was added: a century year is not a leap year unless it is evenly divisible by 400. This rule manages to eliminate three leap years every few hundred years.
It's Smooth Sailing for the Next 3,300 Years
This ingenious correction worked beautifully in bringing the calendar and the solar year in harmony, pretty much eliminating those pesky extra 11 minutes and 14 seconds. Now the calendar year and the solar year are just about a half a minute off. At that rate, it takes 3,300 years for the calendar year and solar year to diverge by a day.
Rules for Determining a Leap Year
Most years that can be divided evenly by 4 are leap years.
(For example, 2012 divided by 4 = 503: Leap year!)
Exception: Century years are NOT leap years UNLESS they can be evenly divided by 400. (For example, 1700, 1800, and 1900 were not leap years, but 1600 and 2000, which are divisible by 400, were.)
The International Language of Love
How to Say “I Love You” Around the World
Language I Love You
Danish Jeg elsker dig
Dutch Ik hou van jou
Esperanto Mi amas vin
French Je t'aime
German Ich liebe Dich
Indonesian Saya cinta kamu
Italian Ti amo
Japanese Aishite imasu
Latin Te amo
Mandarin Chinese Wo ai ni
Polish Kocham cie
Romanian Te iu besc
Russian Ya vas liubliu
Spanish Te amo
Swedish Jag alskar dig
Turkish Seni seviyorum
Latin Words and Phrases
What's the language of scholars, doctors, lawyers, scientists, and priests? It's Latin, and it's not a dead language, as you can see. Here are some fun phrases and words in Latin.
English Latin Pronunciation
seize the day carpe diem car-pay dee-um
endlessly ad nauseam ad nawh-zee-um
unique sui generis soo-eye jen-ur-is
and so forth et cetera et set-ur-uh
silly me me ineptum may in-ep-toom
keepsake memento muh-men-toh
in reality de facto dih fak-toh
a common language lingua franca ling-gwuh frang-kuh
really vero we rr oh
with distinction cum laude koom lou-da
no way nullo modo noh-loh moh-doh
what's happening? quid fit? kwid feet
bubble gum manducabulla mahn-doo-kah-boo-lah
in or of itself per se pur say
really rad dude radicus comes rah di coos koh mees
read my lips labra lege lah-brah lay-gay
I'm out of here abeo ah bay-oh
Foreign Words and Phrases1
The English meanings given below are not necessarily literal translations.
ad absurdum
(ad ab-sir'dum) [Lat.]: to the point of absurdity. “He tediously repeated his argument ad absurdum.”
ad infinitum
(ad in-fun-eye'tum) [Lat.]: to infinity. “The lecture seemed to drone on ad infinitum.”
ad nauseam
(ad noz'ee-um) [Lat.]: to a sickening degree. “The politician uttered one platitude after another ad nauseam.”
aficionado
(uh-fish'ya-nah'doh) [Span.]: an ardent devotee. “I was surprised at what a baseball aficionado she had become.”
angst
(angkst) [Ger.]: dread and anxiety. “Sylvia's teenage angst was nothing compared to the parental angst experienced by the two individuals whose duty it was to raise her.”
annus mirabilis
(an'us muh-ra'buh-lis) [Lat.]: wonderful year. “Last year was the annus mirabilis for my company.”
a priori
(ah pree-or'ee) [Lat.]: based on theory rather than observation. “The fact that their house is in such disrepair suggests a priori that they are having financial difficulties.”
au courant
(oh' koo-rahn') [Fr.]: up-to-date. “The shoes, the hair, the clothes—every last detail of her dress, in fact—was utterly au courant.”
beau geste
(boh zhest') [Fr.]: a fine or noble gesture, often futile. “My fellow writers supported me by writing letters of protest to the publisher, but their beau geste could not prevent the inevitable.”
beau monde
(boh' mond') [Fr.]: high society. “Such elegant decor would impress even the beau monde.”
bête noire
(bet nwahr') [Fr.]: something or someone particularly disliked. “Talk of the good old college days way back when had become his bête noire, and he began to avoid his school friends.”
bona fide
(boh'na fide) [Lat.]: in good faith; genuine. “For all her reticence and modesty, it was clear that she was a bona fide expert in her field.”
bon mot
(bon moe') [Fr.]: a witty remark or comment. “One bon mot after another flew out of his mouth, charming the audience.”
bon vivant
(bon vee-vahnt') [Fr.]: a person who lives luxuriously and enjoys good food and drink. “It's true he's quite the bon vivant, but when he gets down to business he conducts himself like a Spartan.”
carpe diem
(kar'pay dee'um) [Lat.]: seize the day. “So what if you have an 8:00 a.m. meeting tomorrow and various appointments? Carpe diem!”
carte blanche
(kart blonsh') [Fr.]: unrestricted power to act on one's own. “I may have carte blanche around the office, but at home I'm a slave to my family's demands.”
casus belli
(kay'sus bel'eye) [Lat.]: an act justifying war. “The general felt that the banana republic's insolent remarks about our national honor were enough of a casus belli to launch an attack.”
cause célèbre
(koz suh-leb'ruh) [Fr.]: a widely known controversial case or issue. “The Sacco and Vanzetti trial became an international cause célèbre during the 1920s.”
caveat emptor
(kav'ee-ot emp'tor) [Lat.]: let the buyer beware. “Before you leap at that real estate deal, caveat emptor!”
comme ci comme ça
(kom see' kom sah') [Fr.]: so-so. “The plans for the party strike me as comme ci comme ça.”
comme il faut
(kom eel foe') [Fr.]: as it should be; fitting. “His end was truly comme il faut.”
coup de grâce
(koo de grahss') [Fr.]: finishing blow. “After an already wildly successful day, the coup de grâce came when she won best all-around athlete.”
cri de coeur
(kree' de kur') [Fr.]: heartfelt appeal. “About to leave the podium, he made a final cri de coeur to his people to end the bloodshed.”
de rigueur
(duh ree-gur') [Fr.]: strictly required, as by etiquette, usage, or fashion. “Loudly proclaiming one's support for radical causes had become de rigueur among her crowd.”
deus ex machina
(day'us ex mahk'uh-nuh) [Lat.]: a contrived device to resolve a situation. “Stretching plausibility, the movie concluded with a deus ex machina ending in which everyone was rescued at the last minute.”
dolce vita
(dole'chay vee'tuh) [Ital.]: sweet life; the good life perceived as one of physical pleasure and self-indulgence. “My vacation this year is going to be two uninterrupted weeks of dolce vita.”
doppelgänger
(dop'pul-gang-ur) [Ger.]: a ghostly double or counterpart of a living person. “I could not shake the sense that some shadowy doppelgänger echoed my every move.”
ecce homo
(ek'ay ho'mo) [Lat.]: behold the man. “The painting depicted the common Renaissance theme, ecce homo—Christ wearing the crown of thorns.”
enfant terrible
(ahn-fahn' tay-reeb'luh) [Fr.]: an incorrigible child; an outrageously outspoken or bold person. “He played the role of enfant terrible, jolting us with his blunt assessment.”
entre nous
(ahn'truh noo') [Fr.]: between ourselves; confidentially. “Entre nous, their marriage is on the rocks.”
ex cathedra
(ex kuh-thee'druh) [Lat.]: with authority; used especially of those pronouncements of the pope that are considered infallible. “I resigned myself to obeying; my father's opinions were ex cathedra in our household.”
ex post facto
(ex' post fak'toh) [Lat.]: retroactively. “I certainly hope that the change in policy will be honored ex post facto.”
fait accompli
(fate ah-kom-plee') [Fr.]: an accomplished fact, presumably irreversible. “There's no use protesting—it's a fait accompli.”
faux pas
(foh pah') [Fr.]: a social blunder. “Suddenly, she realized she had unwittingly committed yet another faux pas.”
Feinschmecker2
(fine'shmek-er) [Ger.]: gourmet. “No, I don't think McDonald's will do; he's much too much of a Feinschmecker.”
flagrante delicto
(fla-grahn'tee di-lik'toh) [Lat.]: in the act. “The detective realized that without hard evidence he had no case; he would have to catch the culprit flagrante delicto.”
glasnost
(glaz'nohst) [Rus.]: open and frank discussion: initiated by Mikhail Gorbachev in 1985 in the Soviet Union. “Once the old chairman retired, the spirit of glasnost pervaded the department.”
hoi polloi
(hoy' puh-loy') [Gk.]: the common people. “Marie Antoinette recommended cake to the hoi polloi.”
in loco parentis
(in loh'koh pa-ren'tiss) [Lat.]: in the place of a parent. “The court appointed a guardian for the children, to serve in loco parentis.”
in medias res
(in me'-dee-as rays) [Lat.]: in the middle of a sequence of occurences. “The film begins in medias res, with a panting, terrified man running through the night.”
in situ
(in sit'too) [Lat.]: situated in the original or natural position. “I prefer seeing statues in situ rather than in the confines of a museum.”
in vino veritas
(in vee'no vare'i-toss) [Lat.]: in wine there is truth. “By the end of the party, several of the guests had made a good deal of their private lives public, prompting the host to murmur to his wife, ‘in vino veritas.’”
ipso facto
(ip'soh fak'toh) [Lat.]: by the fact itself. “An extremist, ipso facto, cannot become part of a coalition.”
je ne sais quoi
(zheh neh say kwah') [Fr.]: I know not what; an elusive quality. “She couldn't explain it, but there was something je ne sais quoi about him that she found devastatingly attractive.”
mano a mano
(mah'no ah mah'no) [Span.]: directly or face-to-face in a confrontation or conflict. “‘Stay out of it,’ he admonished his friends, ‘I want to handle this guy mano a mano.’”
mea culpa
(may'uh kul'puh) [Lat.]: I am to blame. “His mea culpa was so offhand that I hardly think he meant it.”
memento mori
(muh-men'toh more'ee) [Lat.]: a reminder that you must die. “The skull rested on the mantlepiece as a memento mori.”
mise en scene
(mee' zahn sen) [Fr.]: the stage setting; surroundings. “The mise en scene for the sci-fi movie was molded, futuristic furniture and blinding klieg lights.”
mot juste
(moh zhoost') [Fr.]: the exact, appropriate word. “‘Rats!’ screamed the defiant three-year-old, immensely proud of his mot juste.”
ne plus ultra
(nee' plus ul'truh) [Lat.]: the most intense degree of a quality or state. “Pulling it from the box, he realized he was face to face with the ne plus ultra of computers.”
nom de guerre
(nom duh gair') [Fr.]: pseudonym. “He went by his nom de guerre when frequenting trendy nightclubs.”
nom de plume
(nom duh ploom') [Fr.]: pen name. “Deciding it was time to sit down and begin a novel, the would-be writer spent the first several hours deciding upon a suitable nom de plume.”
nota bene
(noh'tuh ben'nee) [Ital.]: note well; take notice. “Her postcard included a reminder: nota bene, I'll be returning on the 11 o'clock train.”
persona non grata
(per-soh'nuh non grah'tuh) [Lat.]: unacceptable or unwelcome person. “Once I was cut out of the will, I became persona non grata among my relatives.”
prima facie
(pry'ma fay'she) [Lat.]: at first sight, clear and evident. “Although her husband implored, ‘I can explain!’ the sight of another woman wrapped in his arms was prima facie evidence that he was a deceitful lout.”
pro bono
(pro boh'noh) [Lat.]: done or donated without charge; free. “The lawyer's pro bono work gave him a sense of value that his work on behalf of the corporation could not.”
quid pro quo
(kwid' pro kwoh') [Lat.]: something for something; an equal exchange. “She vowed that when she had the means, she would return his favors quid pro quo.”
sans souci
(sahn soo-see') [Fr.]: carefree. “After serveral glasses of champagne, their mood turned distinctly sans souci.”
savoir-faire
(sav'wahr fair') [Fr.]: the ability to say and do the correct thing. “She presided over the gathering with impressive savoir-faire.”
schadenfreude
(shah den froy'deh) [Ger.]: pleasure at someone else's misfortunes. “Schadenfreude suffused the classroom after the insufferably supercilious class pet was caught cheating by the teacher.”
sic transit gloria mundi
(sick tran'sit glor'ee-uh mun'dee) [Lat.]: thus passes away the glory of the world. “Watching the aging former football quarterback lumber down the street, potbellied and dissipated, his friend shook his head in disbelief and muttered, ‘sic transit gloria mundi.’”
sine qua non
(sin'ay kwah nohn') [Lat.]: indispensable element or condition. “Lemon is the sine qua non of this recipe.”
sotto voce
(suh'tow voh'chee) [Ital.]: in a quiet voice, attempting not to be overheard. “While the others were distracted, he filled me in sotto voce on all the delicously sordid details of the scandal.”
sui generis
(su'ee jen'e-ris) [Lat.]: unique. “Adjusting her pirate's hat and fringed hula skirt, Zelda sashayed into the party, knowing her fashion statement was sui generis.”
terra incognita
(tare'uh in-kog-nee'tuh) [Lat.]: unknown territory. “When the conversation suddenly switched from contemporary fiction to medieval Albanian playwrights, he felt himself entering terra incognita.”
tout le monde
(too luh mond') [Fr.]: everybody; everyone of importance. “Don't miss the event; it's bound to be attended by tout le monde.”
veni, vidi, vici
(ven'ee vee'dee vee'chee) [Lat.]: I came, I saw, I conquered. “After the takeover the business mogul gloated, ‘veni, vidi, vici.’”
verboten
(fer-boh'ten) [Ger.]: forbidden, as by law; prohibited. “That topic, I am afraid, is verboten in this household.”
vox populi
(voks pop'yoo-lie) [Lat.]: the voice of the people. “My sentiments echo those of the vox populi.”
Wanderjahr2
(vahn'der-yahr) [Ger.]: a year or period of travel, especially following one's schooling. “The trio took off on their Wanderjahr, intent on visiting every museum between Edinburgh and Rome.”
Weltanschauung2
(velt'an-shou'ung) [Ger.]: a world view or philosophy of life. “His Weltanschauung gradually metamorphized from a grim and pessimistic one to a sunny, but no less complex, view.”
Weltschmerz2
(velt'shmerts) [Ger.]: sorrow over the evils of the world. “His poetry expressed a certain Weltschmerz, or world-weariness.”
Zeitgeist2
(zite'guyst) [Ger.]: the thought or sensibility characteristic of a particular period of time. “She blamed it on the Zeitgeist, which encouraged hedonistic excess.”
1. Foreign words and phrases should be set in italics (or underlined if written in longhand) if their meanings are likely to be unknown to the reader. Whether the expression is familiar or unfamiliar, however, is a matter of judgment. In this list, all foreign words have been italicized for the sake of emphasis.
2. German nouns are capitalized. A familiar German expression that is not italicized, however, should be lowercased, following the English conventions of not capitalizing common nouns. “His proclivities leaned more to the occult than to the philosophical: a poltergeist he could understand; the Zeitgeist he could not.”
Secret Languages/Mystery Messages
Moparopyop hopadop a lopitoptoplope lopamopbop. That means “Mary had a little lamb” in the secret language of Opish. Have you ever thought of using a language all your own? How about Double-Dutch, Na, or Skimono Jive? If you speak a secret language, no one will understand a word you say (until you tell them how it's done). Sound like fun? Try it! We've used “Mary had a little lamb” for each example.
Double-Dutch
b - bub k - kuk s - sus
c - cash l - lul t - tut
d - dud m - mum v - vuv
f - fuf n - nun w - wash
g - gug p - pub x - xux
h - hutch q - quack y - yub
j - jug r - rug z - zub
Vowels are pronounced normally, but consonants become syllables.
Example: Mumarugyub hutchadud a lulituttutlulelulamumbub.
Eggy-Peggy
This secret language is used mostly in England. Add “egg” before each vowel.
Example: Meggary heggad egga leggittle leggamb.
Gree
Add “gree” to the end of every word.
Example: Marygree hadgree agree littlegree lambgree.
Na
Add “na” to the end of every word.
Example: Maryna hadna ana littlena lambna.
Pig Latin
This is the most popular and well-known secret language. Move the first letter to the end of the word and add “ay” to it.
Example: Arymay adhay aay ittlelay amblay.
Skimono Jive
Add “sk” to the beginning of every word.
Example: Skmary skhad ska sklittle sklamb.
Making Wishes
The ancient Greeks threw coins in their wells, hoping to keep the wells from running dry. Today, people throw coins in fountains to make wishes come true. But don't throw all your coins into one fountain; there is more than one way to make a wish.
“Touch blue and your wish will come true.”
Make a wish each time you eat a green M&M.
Make a wish when you see three birds on a telephone wire.
Put a watermelon seed on your forehead and make a wish before it falls off.
Make a wish before you blow out the candles on your birthday cake.
Make a wish on the first star you see at night.
Throw a coin in a fountain; make a wish when the water clears so you can see your reflection.
Make a wish on a new pair of shoes before you wear them for the first time.
Make a wish with another person on a wishbone. Each takes an end and pulls until it breaks. The person with the largest piece of bone gets the “lucky break” and the wish.
Make a wish on the first robin you see in the spring.
Find a penny, wear it in your left shoe, and your wish will come true.
Wishes made on Midsummer's Eve (June 23) are most likely to come true.
Hold your breath and make a wish while crossing a short straight bridge.
What Colors Mean
We live in a colorful world. In many countries, colors represent various holidays; they are also used to express feelings and enliven language. Find your favorite color and see what it means around the world.
Red
For the ancient Romans, a red flag was a signal for battle.
Because of its visibility, stop signs, stoplights, brake lights, and fire equipment are all painted red.
The ancient Egyptians considered themselves a red race and painted their bodies with red dye for emphasis.
In Russia, red means beautiful. The Bolsheviks used a red flag as their symbol when they overthrew the tsar in 1917. That is how red became the color of communism.
In India, red is the symbol for a soldier.
In South Africa, red is the color of mourning.
It's considered good luck to tie a red bow on a new car.
In China, red is the color of good luck and is used as a holiday and wedding color. Chinese babies are given their names at a red-egg ceremony.
Superstitious people think red frightens the devil.
A “red-letter day” is one of special importance and good fortune.
In Greece, eggs are dyed red for good luck at Easter time.
To “paint the town red” is to celebrate.
Red is the color most commonly found in national flags.
In the English War of the Roses, red was the color of the House of Lancaster, which defeated the House of York, symbolized by the color white.
The “Redshirts” were the soldiers of the Italian leader Garibaldi, who unified modern Italy in the nineteenth century.
To “see red” is to be angry.
A “red herring” is a distraction, something that takes attention away from the real issue.
A “red eye” is an overnight airplane flight.
If a business is “in the red,” it is losing money.
Green
Only one national flag is a solid color: the green flag of Libya.
Ancient Egyptians colored the floors of their temples green.
In ancient Greece, green symbolized victory.
In the highlands of Scotland, people wore green as a mark of honor.
Green is the national color of Ireland.
A “greenback” is slang for a U.S. dollar bill.
Green means “go.” When “all systems are green,” it means everything is in order.
The green room of a concert hall or theater is where performers relax before going onstage.
The “green-eyed monster” is jealousy.
A greenhorn is a newcomer or unsophisticated person.
Green is youthful.
Being “green around the gills” is looking pale and sickly.
“Green with envy” means full of envy or jealousy.
A person with a “green thumb” is good at making plants grow.
A green, or common, is a town park.
Green is a healing color, the color of nature.
Blue
In ancient Rome, public servants wore blue. Today, police and other public servants wear blue.
In Iran, blue is the color of mourning.
Blue was used as protection against witches, who supposedly dislike the color.
If you are “true blue,” you are loyal and faithful.
Blue stands for love, which is why a bride carries or wears something blue on her wedding day.
A room painted blue is said to be relaxing.
“Feeling blue” is feeling sad. “Blue devils” are feelings of depression.
Something “out of the blue” is from an unknown source at an unexpected time.
A bluebook is a list of socially prominent people.
The first prize gets a blue ribbon.
A blue blood is a person of noble descent. This is probably from the blue veins of the fair-complexioned aristocrats who first used this term.
“Into the blue” means into the unknown.
A “bluenose” is a strict, puritanical person.
A “bluestocking” used to be a scholarly or highly knowledgeable woman.
The pharaohs of ancient Egypt wore blue for protection against evil.
The “blues” is a style of music derived from southern African-American secular songs. It influenced the development of rock, R&B, and country music.
“Blue laws” are used to enforce moral standards.
A blue ribbon panel is a group of especially qualified people.
Purple, Violet
The Egyptian queen Cleopatra loved purple. To obtain one ounce of Tyrian purple dye, she had her servants soak 20,000 Purpura snails for 10 days.
In Thailand, purple is worn by a widow mourning her husband's death.
A “purple heart” is a U.S. military decoration for soldiers wounded or killed in battle.
Purple is a royal color.
Purple robes are an emblem of authority and rank.
“Purple speech” is profane talk.
“Purple prose” is writing that is full of exaggerated literary effects and ornamentation.
Leonardo da Vinci believed that the power of meditation increases 10 times when done in a purple light, as in the purple light of stained glass.
Purple in a child's room is said to help develop the imagination according to color theory.
Richard Wagner composed his operas in a room with shades of violet, his color of inspiration.
Yellow
In Egypt and Burma, yellow signifies mourning.
In Spain, executioners once wore yellow.
In India, yellow is the symbol for a merchant or farmer.
In tenth-century France, the doors of traitors and criminals were painted yellow.
Hindus in India wear yellow to celebrate the festival of spring.
If someone is said to have a “yellow streak,” that person is considered a coward.
In Japan during the War of Dynasty in 1357, each warrior wore a yellow chrysanthemum as a pledge of courage.
A yellow ribbon is a sign of support for soldiers at the front.
Yellow is a symbol of jealousy and deceit.
In the Middle Ages, actors portraying the dead in a play wore yellow.
To holistic healers, yellow is the color of peace.
Yellow has good visibility and is often used as a color of warning. It is also a symbol for quarantine, an area marked off because of danger.
“Yellow journalism” refers to irresponsible and alarmist reporting.
White
A white flag is the universal symbol for truce.
White means mourning in China and Japan.
Angels are usually depicted wearing white robes.
The ancient Greeks wore white to bed to ensure pleasant dreams.
The Egyptian pharaohs wore white crowns.
The ancient Persians believed all gods wore white.
A “white elephant” is a rare, pale elephant considered sacred to the people of India, Thailand, Burma, and Sri Lanka; in this country, it is either a possession that costs more than it is worth to keep or an item that the owner doesn't want but can't get rid of.
It's considered good luck to be married in a white garment.
White heat is a state of intense enthusiasm, anger, devotion, or passion.
To whitewash is to gloss over defects or make something seem presentable that isn't.
A “white knight” is a rescuer.
A white list contains favored items (as opposed to a blacklist).
A “whiteout” occurs when there is zero visibility during a blizzard.
A “white sale” is a sale of sheets, towels, and other bed and bath items.
A “whited sepulcher” is a person who is evil inside but appears good on the outside, a hypocrite.
“White lightning” is slang for moonshine, a homebrewed alcohol.
A white room is a clean room as well as a temperature-controlled, dust-free room for precision instruments.
White water is the foamy, frothy water in rapids and waterfalls.
Black
The ancient Egyptians and Romans used black for mourning, as do most Europeans and Americans today.
The “Blackshirts” were the security troops in Hitler's German army, also known as the S.S.
Black often stands for secrecy.
Black humor is morbid or unhealthy and gloomy humor.
A “blackhearted” person is evil.
If a business is “in the black,” it is making money.
A “blacklist” is a list of persons or organizations to be boycotted or punished.
Black is associated with sophistication and elegance. A “black tie” event is formal.
A black belt in karate identifies an expert.
A black flag in a car race is the signal for a driver to go to the pits.
A blackguard is a scoundrel.
The ancient Egyptians believed that black cats had divine powers.
Black lung is a coal miner's disease caused by the frequent inhaling of coal dust.
Blackmail is getting things by threat.
Black market is illegal trade in goods or money.
A black sheep is an outcast.
“Blackwash” (as opposed to “whitewash”) is to uncover or bring out in the light.
A blackout is a period of darkness from the loss of electricity, for protection against nighttime air raids, or, in the theater, to separate scenes in a play.
When you “black out,” you temporarily lose consciousness.
Say It with Flowers
If you send someone a single rose you are sending a message of love. You can send all kinds of messages with flowers. Florigraphy is the language of flowers. Hundreds of flowers and trees have been given meanings and here are some of them.
Flower/Tree Meaning
American Elm Patriotism
American Linden Matrimony
Anemone Expectation
Apple Temptation
Arborvitae Unchanging friendship
Ash Tree Grandeur
Aspen Tree Lamentation
Azalea Temperance
Beech Tree Prosperity
Birch Tree Meekness
Bluebell Constancy
Buttercup Ingratitude
Chamomille Energy in adversity
Candytuft Indifference
Carnation (Red) Alas! My poor heart!
Cedar Strength
Cherry Tree Good education
Chrysanthemum Slighted love
Clematis Mental beauty
Coreopsis Always cheerful
Cyclamen Shyness
Cypress Mourning
Dandelion Wisdom
Daffodil Regard
Daisy We feel the same
Dogwood Durability
Elm Dignity
Fig Tree Prolific
Forget-me-not True love
Fuchsia Taste
Geranium Comfort
Hollyhock Ambition
Honeysuckle Generosity
Horse Chestnut Luxury
Hydrangea Heartlessness
Iris Power
Ivy Fidelity
Juniper Protection
Lilac First Love
Lily of the Valley Return of joy
Locust Elegance
Lupine Imagination
Magnolia Love of nature
Morning Glory Affectation
Mulberry Wisdom
Nasturtium Patience
Oak Tree Hospitality
Orange Tree Generosity
Pear Tree Comfort
Plum Tree Fidelity
Poplar Courage
Rose Love
Sunflower Haughtiness
Sweet Pea Delicate pleasure
Sycamore Curiosity
Tulip Fame
Violet Faithfulness
Walnut Tree Intellect
Weeping Willow Mourning
Zinnia Absent friends
American Sign Language and Braille
Sign language for the deaf was first systematized in France during the 18th century by Abbot Charles-Michel l'Epée. French Sign Language (FSL) was brought to the United States in 1816 by Thomas Gallaudet, founder of the American School for the Deaf in Hartford, Conn. He developed American Sign Language (ASL), a language of gestures and hand symbols that express words and concepts.
In many respects, sign language is just like any spoken language, with a rich vocabulary and a highly organized, rule-governed grammar. But in sign language, information is processed through the eyes rather than the ears. Thus, facial expression and body movement play an important part in conveying information.
In spoken language, the relationship between most words and the objects and concepts they represent is arbitrary—there is nothing about the word “tree” that actually suggests a tree, either in the way it is spelled or pronounced. In the same way, in sign language most signs do not suggest, or imitate, the thing or idea they represent, and must be learned. Sign language may be acquired naturally as a child's first language, or it may be learned through study and practice.
Sign language shares other similarities with spoken languages. Like any living language, ASL grows and changes over time to accommodate native users' needs. ASL also has regional varieties, equivalent to spoken accents, with different signs being used in different parts of the country.
American Manual Alphabet
Along with sign language and lip reading, many deaf people also communicate with the manual alphabet, which uses finger positions that correspond to the letters of the alphabet to spell out words and names.
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Braille Alphabet
Braille is a system of printing and writing for the blind created in 1824 by Louis Braille (1809–1852), a French inventor who went blind from an accident when he was three. Each character in Braille is made up of an arrangement of one-to-six raised points used in 63 possible combinations. Braille is read by passing the fingers over the raised characters. A universal Braille code for English-speaking countries was adopted in 1932.
Common Abbreviations
A.B. Artium Baccalaureus [Bachelor of Arts]
abbr. abbreviation(s), abbreviated
Acad. Academy
A.D. anno Domini [in the year of the Lord]
alt. altitude
A.M. ante meridiem [before noon]; Artium Magister [Master of Arts]
AM amplitude modulation
Assn. Association
at. no. atomic number
at. wt. atomic weight
Aug. August
Ave. Avenue
AWOL absent without leave
b. born, born in
B.A. Bachelor of Arts
B.C. Before Christ
b.p. boiling point
B.S. Bachelor of Science
Btu British thermal unit(s)
C Celsius (centigrade)
c. circa [about]
cal calorie(s)
Capt. Captain
cent. century, centuries
cm centimeter(s)
co. county
Col. Colonel; Colossians
Comdr. Commander
Corp. Corporation
Cpl. Corporal
cu cubic
d. died, died in
D.C. District of Columbia
Dec. December
dept. department
dist. district
div. division
Dr. doctor
E east, eastern
ed. edited, edition, editor(s)
est. established; estimated
et al. et alii [and others]
F Fahrenheit
Feb. February
fl. floruit [flourished]
fl oz fluid ounce(s)
FM frequency modulation
ft foot, feet
gal. gallon(s)
Gen. General, Genesis
GMT Greenwich mean time
GNP gross national product
GOP Grand Old Party (Republican Party)
Gov. governor
grad. graduated, graduated at
H hour(s)
Hon. the Honorable
hr hour(s)
i.e. id est [that is]
in. inch(es)
inc. incorporated
Inst. Institute, Institution
IRA Irish Republican Army
IRS Internal Revenue Service
Jan. January
Jr. Junior
K Kelvin
kg kilogram(s)
km kilometer(s)
£ libra [pound], librae [pounds]
lat. latitude
lb libra [pound], librae [pounds]
Lib. Library
long. longitude
Lt. Lieutenant
Ltd. Limited
m meter(s)
M minute(s)
M.D. Medicinae Doctor [Doctor of Medicine]
mg milligram(s)
mi mile(s)
min minute(s)
mm millimeter(s)
mph miles per hour
Mr. Mister (always abbreviated)
Mrs. Mistress (always abbreviated)
Msgr Monsignor
mt. Mount, Mountain
mts. mountains
Mus. Museum
N north; Newton(s)
NAACP National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NE northeast
no. number
Nov. November
OAS Organization of American States
Oct. October
Op. Opus [work]
oz ounce(s)
pl. plural
pop. population
pseud. pseudonym
pt. part(s)
pt pint(s)
pub. published; publisher
qt quart(s)
Rev. Revelation; the Reverend
rev. revised
R.N. registered nurse
rpm revolution(s) per minute
RR railroad
S south
S second(s)
SEATO Southeast Asia Treaty Organization
SEC Securities and Exchange Commission
sec second(s); secant
Sept. September
Ser. Series
Sgt. Sergeant
sq square
Sr. Senior
SSR Soviet Socialist Republic
St. Saint; Street
UNICEF United Nations Children's Fund
uninc. unincorporated
Univ. University
U.S. United States
USA United States Army
USAF United States Air Force
USCG United States Coast Guard
USMC United States Marine Corps
USN United States Navy
USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
VFW Veterans of Foreign Wars
VISTA Volunteers in Service to America
vol. volume(s)
vs. versus
W west; watt(s)
WHO World Health Organization
wt. weight
yd yard(s)
YMCA Young Men's Christian Association
YWCA Young Women's Christian Association
Whatchamacallits, or Names for the Little Things
Are you often stumped by the name of a little thing? Do you call common objects whatchamacallits? Help is on the way! There are names for those little things in life.
Belt: tongue, punch holes, keeper
Broom: neck (where stick is attached to broom)
Clothespin: grinning hole, claw end
Comb: spine, teeth
Door: lintel, jamb, threshold
Eyeglasses: eye wires (surround glass), budge (bridges the nose), temples (hook over the ears)
Hair dryer: barrel, air vents
Hat: brim, crown
Hot dog roll: hinge
Hot dog string: linker twine
Nail: shank, head
Padlock: shackle (movable arched bar)
Pail: ears (where handle attaches to pail)
Paper clips: legs (straight), bends (rounded)
Safety pin: shaft
Scissors: blades, pivot, bow handle (large), ring handle (small)
Shoe: aglet (tip of shoelace), welt (between upper and sole), counter (back panel)
Sock: toe, gore (back)
Stairs: tread, riser, railing, banister, newel post
Staple: crown, legs
Toothbrush: block handle, block head (where bristles are inserted)
Window: lintel, sill, panes, sash
Zipper: pull tab, slide, teeth
Latin and Greek Word Elements
English is a living language, and it is growing all the time. One way that new words come into the language is when words are borrowed from other languages. New words are also created when words or word elements, such as roots, prefixes, and suffixes, are combined in new ways.
Many English words and word elements can be traced back to Latin and Greek. Often you can guess the meaning of an unfamiliar word if you know the meaning.
A word root is a part of a word. It contains the core meaning of the word, but it cannot stand alone. A prefix is also a word part that cannot stand alone. It is placed at the beginning of a word to change its meaning. A suffix is a word part that is placed at the end of a word to change its meaning. Often you can guess the meaning of an unfamiliar word if you know the meaning of its parts; that is, the root and any prefixes or suffixes that are attached to it.
Latin Roots, Prefixes, and Suffixes
Latin was the language spoken by the ancient Romans. As the Romans conquered most of Europe, the Latin language spread throughout the region. Over time, the Latin spoken in different areas developed into separate languages, including Italian, French, Spanish, and Portuguese. These languages are considered “sisters,” as they all descended from Latin, their “mother” language.
In 1066 England was conquered by William, duke of Normandy, which is in northern France. For several hundred years after the Norman invasion, French was the language of court and polite society in England. It was during this period that many French words were borrowed into English. Linguists estimate that some 60% of our common everyday vocabulary today comes from French. Thus many Latin words came into English indirectly through French.
Many Latin words came into English directly, though, too. Monks from Rome brought religious vocabulary as well as Christianity to England beginning in the 6th century. From the Middle Ages onward many scientific, scholarly, and legal terms were borrowed from Latin.
During the 17th and 18th centuries, dictionary writers and grammarians generally felt that English was an imperfect language whereas Latin was perfect. In order to improve the language, they deliberately made up a lot of English words from Latin words. For example, fraternity, from Latin fraternitas, was thought to be better than the native English word brotherhood.
Many English words and word parts can be traced back to Latin and Greek. The following table lists some common Latin roots.
Latin root Basic meaning Example words
-dict- to say contradict, dictate, diction, edict, predict
-duc- to lead, bring, take deduce, produce, reduce
-gress- to walk digress, progress, transgress
-ject- to throw eject, inject, interject, project, reject, subject
-pel- to drive compel, dispel, impel, repel
-pend- to hang append, depend, impend, pendant, pendulum
-port- to carry comport, deport, export, import, report, support
-scrib-, -script- to write describe, description, prescribe, prescription, subscribe, subscription, transcribe, transcription
-tract- to pull, drag, draw attract, contract, detract, extract, protract, retract, traction
-vert- to turn convert, divert, invert, revert
From the example words in the above table, it is easy to see how roots combine with prefixes to form new words. For example, the root -tract-, meaning “to pull,” can combine with a number of prefixes, including de- and re-. Detract means literally “to pull away” (de-, “away, off”) and retract means literally “to pull back” (re-, “again, back”). The following table gives a list of Latin prefixes and their basic meanings.
Latin prefix Basic meaning Example words
co- together coauthor, coedit, coheir
de- away, off; generally indicates reversal or removal in English deactivate, debone, defrost, decompress, deplane
dis- not, not any disbelief, discomfort, discredit, disrepair, disrespect
inter- between, among international, interfaith, intertwine, intercellular, interject
non- not nonessential, nonmetallic, nonresident, nonviolence, nonskid, nonstop
post- after postdate, postwar, postnasal, postnatal
pre- before preconceive, preexist, premeditate, predispose, prepossess, prepay
re- again; back, backward rearrange, rebuild, recall, remake, rerun, rewrite
sub- under submarine, subsoil, subway, subhuman, substandard
trans- across, beyond, through transatlantic, transpolar
Words and word roots may also combine with suffixes. Here are examples of some important English suffixes that come from Latin:
Latin suffix Basic meaning Example words
-able, -ible forms adjectives and means “capable or worthy of” likable, flexible
-ation forms nouns from verbs creation, civilization, automation, speculation, information
-fy, -ify forms verbs and means “to make or cause to become” purify, acidify, humidify
-ment forms nouns from verbs entertainment, amazement, statement, banishment
-ty, -ity forms nouns from adjectives subtlety, certainty, cruelty, frailty, loyalty, royalty; eccentricity, electricity, peculiarity, similarity, technicality
Greek Roots, Prefixes, and Suffixes
The following table lists some common Greek roots.
Greek root Basic meaning Example words
-anthrop- human misanthrope, philanthropy, anthropomorphic
-chron- time anachronism, chronic, chronicle, synchronize, chronometer
-dem- people democracy, demography, demagogue, endemic, pandemic
-morph- form amorphous, metamorphic, morphology
-path- feeling, suffering empathy, sympathy, apathy, apathetic, psychopathic
-pedo-, -ped- child, children pediatrician, pedagogue
-philo-, -phil- having a strong affinity or love for philanthropy, philharmonic, philosophy
-phon- sound polyphonic, cacophony, phonetics
The following table gives a list of Greek prefixes and their basic meanings.
Greek prefix Basic meaning Example words
a-, an- without achromatic, amoral, atypical, anaerobic
anti-, ant- opposite; opposing anticrime, antipollution, antacid
auto- self, same autobiography, automatic, autopilot
bio-, bi- life, living organism biology, biophysics, biotechnology, biopsy
geo- Earth; geography geography, geomagnetism, geophysics, geopolitics
hyper- excessive, excessively hyperactive, hypercritical, hypersensitive
micro- small microcosm, micronucleus, microscope
mono- one, single, alone monochrome, monosyllable, monoxide
neo- new, recent neonatal, neophyte, neoconservatism, neofascism, neodymium
pan- all panorama, panchromatic, pandemic, pantheism
thermo-, therm- heat thermal, thermometer, thermostat
Words and word roots may also combine with suffixes. Here are examples of some important English suffixes that come from Greek:
Greek suffix Basic meaning Example words
-ism forms nouns and means “the act, state, or theory of” criticism, optimism, capitalism
-ist forms agent nouns from verbs ending in -ize or nouns ending in -ism and is used like -er conformist, copyist, cyclist
-ize forms verbs from nouns and adjectives formalize, jeopardize, legalize, modernize, emphasize, hospitalize, industrialize, computerize
-gram something written or drawn, a record cardiogram, telegram
-graph something written or drawn; an instrument for writing, drawing, or recording monograph, phonograph, seismograph
-logue, -log speech, discourse; to speak monologue, dialogue, travelogue
-logy discourse, expression; science, theory, study phraseology, biology, dermatology
-meter, -metry measuring device; measure spectrometer, geometry, kilometer, parameter, perimeter
-oid forms adjectives and nouns and means “like, resembling” or “shape, form” humanoid, spheroid, trapezoid
-phile one that loves or has a strong affinity for; loving audiophile, Francophile
-phobe, -phobia one that fears a specified thing; an intense fear of a specified thing agoraphobe, agoraphobia, xenophobe, xenophobia
-phone sound; device that receives or emits sound; speaker of a language homophone, geophone, telephone, Francophone
Glossary of Poetry Terms
accent
The prominence or emphasis given to a syllable or word. In the word poetry, the accent (or stress) falls on the first syllable.
alexandrine
A line of poetry that has 12 syllables. The name probably comes from a medieval romance about Alexander the Great that was written in 12-syllable lines.
alliteration
The repetition of the same or similar sounds at the beginning of words: “What would the world be, once bereft/Of wet and wildness?” (Gerard Manley Hopkins, “Inversnaid”)
anapest
A metrical foot of three syllables, two short (or unstressed) followed by one long (or stressed), as in seventeen and to the moon. The anapest is the reverse of the dactyl.
antithesis
A figure of speech in which words and phrases with opposite meanings are balanced against each other. An example of antithesis is “To err is human, to forgive, divine.” (Alexander Pope)
apostrophe
Words that are spoken to a person who is absent or imaginary, or to an object or abstract idea. The poem God's World by Edna St. Vincent Millay begins with an apostrophe: “O World, I cannot hold thee close enough!/Thy winds, thy wide grey skies!/Thy mists that roll and rise!”
assonance
The repetition or a pattern of similar sounds, especially vowel sounds: “Thou still unravished bride of quietness,/Thou foster child of silence and slow time” (“Ode to a Grecian Urn,” John Keats).
ballad
A poem that tells a story similar to a folk tale or legend and often has a repeated refrain. “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” by Samuel Taylor Coleridge is an example of a ballad.
ballade
A type of poem, usually with three stanzas of seven, eight, or ten lines and a shorter final stanza (or envoy) of four or five lines. All stanzas end with the same one-line refrain.
blank verse
Poetry that is written in unrhymed iambic pentameter. Shakespeare wrote most of his plays in blank verse.
caesura
A natural pause or break in a line of poetry, usually near the middle of the line. There is a caesura right after the question mark in the first line of this sonnet by Elizabeth Barrett Browning: “How do I love thee? Let me count the ways.”
canzone
A medieval Italian lyric poem, with five or six stanzas and a shorter concluding stanza (or envoy). The poets Petrarch and Dante Alighieri were masters of the canzone.
carpe diem
A Latin expression that means “seize the day.” Carpe diem poems urge the reader (or the person to whom they are addressed) to live for today and enjoy the pleasures of the moment. A famous carpe diem poem by Robert Herrick begins “Gather ye rosebuds while ye may…”
chanson de geste
An epic poem of the 11th to the 14th century, written in Old French, which details the exploits of a historical or legendary figure, especially Charlemagne.
classicism
The principles and ideals of beauty that are characteristic of Greek and Roman art, architecture, and literature. Examples of classicism in poetry can be found in the works of John Dryden and Alexander Pope, which are characterized by their formality, simplicity, and emotional restraint.
conceit
A fanciful poetic image or metaphor that likens one thing to something else that is seemingly very different. An example of a conceit can be found in Shakespeare's sonnet “Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?” and in Emily Dickinson's poem “There is no frigate like a book.”
consonance
The repetition of similar consonant sounds, especially at the ends of words, as in lost and past or confess and dismiss.
couplet
In a poem, a pair of lines that are the same length and usually rhyme and form a complete thought. Shakespearean sonnets usually end in a couplet.
dactyl
A metrical foot of three syllables, one long (or stressed) followed by two short (or unstressed), as in happily. The dactyl is the reverse of the anapest.
elegy
A poem that laments the death of a person, or one that is simply sad and thoughtful. An example of this type of poem is Thomas Gray's “Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard.”
enjambment
The continuation of a complete idea (a sentence or clause) from one line or couplet of a poem to the next line or couplet without a pause. An example of enjambment can be found in the first line of Joyce Kilmer's poem Trees: “I think that I shall never see/A poem as lovely as a tree.” Enjambment comes from the French word for “to straddle.”
envoy
The shorter final stanza of a poem, as in a ballade.
epic
A long, serious poem that tells the story of a heroic figure. Two of the most famous epic poems are the Iliad and the Odyssey by Homer, which tell about the Trojan War and the adventures of Odysseus on his voyage home after the war.
epigram
A very short, witty poem: “Sir, I admit your general rule,/That every poet is a fool,/But you yourself may serve to show it,/That every fool is not a poet.” (Samuel Taylor Coleridge)
epithalamium (or epithalamion)
A poem in honor of a bride and bridegroom.
feminine rhyme
A rhyme that occurs in a final unstressed syllable: pleasure/leisure, longing/yearning.
figure of speech
A verbal expression in which words or sounds are arranged in a particular way to achieve a particular effect. Figures of speech are organized into different categories, such as alliteration, assonance, metaphor, metonymy, onomatopoeia, simile, and synecdoche.
foot
Two or more syllables that together make up the smallest unit of rhythm in a poem. For example, an iamb is a foot that has two syllables, one unstressed followed by one stressed. An anapest has three syllables, two unstressed followed by one stressed.
free verse (also vers libre)
Poetry composed of either rhymed or unrhymed lines that have no set meter.
haiku
A Japanese poem composed of three unrhymed lines of five, seven, and five syllables. Haiku often reflect on some aspect of nature.
heptameter
A line of poetry that has seven metrical feet.
heroic couplet
A stanza composed of two rhymed lines in iambic pentameter.
hexameter
A line of poetry that has six metrical feet.
hyperbole
A figure of speech in which deliberate exaggeration is used for emphasis. Many everyday expressions are examples of hyperbole: tons of money, waiting for ages, a flood of tears, etc. Hyperbole is the opposite of litotes.
iamb
A metrical foot of two syllables, one short (or unstressed) and one long (or stressed). There are four iambs in the line “Come live/ with me/ and be/ my love,” from a poem by Christopher Marlowe. (The stressed syllables are in bold.) The iamb is the reverse of the trochee.
iambic pentameter
A type of meter in poetry, in which there are five iambs to a line. (The prefix penta- means “five,” as in pentagon, a geometrical figure with five sides. Meter refers to rhythmic units. In a line of iambic pentameter, there are five rhythmic units that are iambs.) Shakespeare's plays were written mostly in iambic pentameter, which is the most common type of meter in English poetry. An example of an iambic pentameter line from Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet is “But soft!/ What light/ through yon/der win/dow breaks?” Another, from Richard III, is “A horse!/ A horse!/ My king/dom for/ a horse!” (The stressed syllables are in bold.)
idyll, or idyl
Either a short poem depicting a peaceful, idealized country scene, or a long poem that tells a story about heroic deeds or extraordinary events set in the distant past. Idylls of the King, by Alfred Lord Tennyson, is about King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table.
lay
A long narrative poem, especially one that was sung by medieval minstrels called trouvères. The Lais of Marie de France are lays.
limerick
A light, humorous poem of five usually anapestic lines with the rhyme scheme of aabba.
litotes
A figure of speech in which a positive is stated by negating its opposite. Some examples of litotes: no small victory, not a bad idea, not unhappy. Litotes is the opposite of hyperbole.
lyric
A poem, such as a sonnet or an ode, that expresses the thoughts and feelings of the poet. A lyric poem may resemble a song in form or style.
masculine rhyme
A rhyme that occurs in a final stressed syllable: cat/hat, desire/fire, observe/deserve.
metaphor
A figure of speech in which two things are compared, usually by saying one thing is another, or by substituting a more descriptive word for the more common or usual word that would be expected. Some examples of metaphors: the world's a stage, he was a lion in battle, drowning in debt, and a sea of troubles.
meter
The arrangement of a line of poetry by the number of syllables and the rhythm of accented (or stressed) syllables.
metonymy
A figure of speech in which one word is substituted for another with which it is closely associated. For example, in the expression The pen is mightier than the sword, the word pen is used for “the written word,” and sword is used for “military power.”
narrative
Telling a story. Ballads, epics, and lays are different kinds of narrative poems.
ode
A lyric poem that is serious and thoughtful in tone and has a very precise, formal structure. John Keats's “Ode on a Grecian Urn” is a famous example of this type of poem.
onomatopoeia
A figure of speech in which words are used to imitate sounds. Examples of onomatopoeic words are buzz, hiss, zing, clippety-clop, and tick-tock. Keats's “Ode to a Nightingale” not only uses onomatopoeia, but calls our attention to it: “Forlorn! The very word is like a bell/To toll me back from thee to my sole self!” Another example of onomatopoeia is found in this line from Tennyson's Come Down, O Maid: “The moan of doves in immemorial elms,/And murmuring of innumerable bees.” The repeated “m/n” sounds reinforce the idea of “murmuring” by imitating the hum of insects on a warm summer day.
ottava rima
A type of poetry consisting of 10- or 11-syllable lines arranged in 8-line “octaves” with the rhyme scheme abababcc.
pastoral
A poem that depicts rural life in a peaceful, idealized way.
pentameter
A line of poetry that has five metrical feet.
personification
A figure of speech in which things or abstract ideas are given human attributes: dead leaves dance in the wind, blind justice.
poetry
A type of literature that is written in meter.
quatrain
A stanza or poem of four lines.
refrain
A line or group of lines that is repeated throughout a poem, usually after every stanza.
rhyme
The occurrence of the same or similar sounds at the end of two or more words. When the rhyme occurs in a final stressed syllable, it is said to be masculine: cat/hat, desire/fire, observe/deserve. When the rhyme occurs in a final unstressed syllable, it is said to be feminine: longing/yearning. The pattern of rhyme in a stanza or poem is shown usually by using a different letter for each final sound. In a poem with an aabba rhyme scheme, the first, second, and fifth lines end in one sound, and the third and fourth lines end in another.
rhyme royal
A type of poetry consisting of stanzas of seven lines in iambic pentameter with the rhyme scheme ababbcc. Rhyme royal was an innovation introduced by Geoffrey Chaucer.
romanticism
The principles and ideals of the Romantic movement in literature and the arts during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Romanticism, which was a reaction to the classicism of the early 18th century, favored feeling over reason and placed great emphasis on the subjective, or personal, experience of the individual. Nature was also a major theme. The great English Romantic poets include Wordsworth, Coleridge, Byron, Shelley, and Keats.
scansion
The analysis of a poem's meter. This is usually done by marking the stressed and unstressed syllables in each line and then, based on the pattern of the stresses, dividing the line into feet.
senryu
A short Japanese poem that is similar to a haiku in structure but treats human beings rather than nature, often in a humorous or satiric way.
simile
A figure of speech in which two things are compared using the word “like” or “as.” An example of a simile using like occurs in Langston Hughes's poem “Harlem”: “What happens to a dream deferred?/ Does it dry up/ like a raisin in the sun?”
sonnet
A lyric poem that is 14 lines long. Italian (or Petrarchan) sonnets are divided into two quatrains and a six-line “sestet,” with the rhyme scheme abba abba cdecde (or cdcdcd). English (or Shakespearean) sonnets are composed of three quatrains and a final couplet, with a rhyme scheme of abab cdcd efef gg. English sonnets are written generally in iambic pentameter.
spondee
A metrical foot of two syllables, both of which are long (or stressed).
stanza
Two or more lines of poetry that together form one of the divisions of a poem. The stanzas of a poem are usually of the same length and follow the same pattern of meter and rhyme.
stress
The prominence or emphasis given to particular syllables. Stressed syllables usually stand out because they have long, rather than short, vowels, or because they have a different pitch or are louder than other syllables.
synecdoche
A figure of speech in which a part is used to designate the whole or the whole is used to designate a part. For example, the phrase “all hands on deck” means “all men on deck,” not just their hands. The reverse situation, in which the whole is used for a part, occurs in the sentence “The U.S. beat Russia in the final game,” where the U.S. and Russia stand for “the U.S. team” and “the Russian team,” respectively.
tanka
A Japanese poem of five lines, the first and third composed of five syllables and the rest of seven.
terza rima
A type of poetry consisting of 10- or 11-syllable lines arranged in three-line “tercets” with the rhyme scheme aba bcb cdc, etc. The poet Dante is credited with inventing terza rima, which he used in his Divine Comedy. Terza rima was borrowed into English by Chaucer, and it has been used by many English poets, including Milton, Shelley, and Auden.
tetrameter
A line of poetry that has four metrical feet.
trochee
A metrical foot of two syllables, one long (or stressed) and one short (or unstressed). An easy way to remember the trochee is to memorize the first line of a lighthearted poem by Samuel Taylor Coleridge, which demonstrates the use of various kinds of metrical feet: “Trochee/ trips from/ long to/ short.” (The stressed syllables are in bold.) The trochee is the reverse of the iamb.
trope
A figure of speech, such as metaphor or metonymy, in which words are not used in their literal (or actual) sense but in a figurative (or imaginative) sense.
verse
A single metrical line of poetry, or poetry in general (as opposed to prose).
Some Basic Phrases in Other Languages
The language
itself hello good bye please thank you English yes no traditional
toast
German Deutsch hallo auf Wiedersehen bitte danke Englisch ja nein prosit
Dutch Nederlands hallo tot ziens alstublieft dankjewel engels ja nee proost
Danish dansk hej farvel (1) tak engelsk ja nej skål
Swedish svenska hej hejdå tack tack engelska ja nej skål
French français bonjour au revoir s'il vous plaît merci anglais oui non santé
Spanish español hola adiós por favor gracias inglés sí no salud
Italian italiano ciao arrivederci per favore grazie inglese si no salute
Hebrew ivrit shalom lehitraot bevakasha toda anglit ken lo le-chaim
Irish Gaeilge fáilte slán le do thoil go raibh maith agat Béarla sea2 ní ha3 slainte
Swahili Kiswahili (4) kwa heri tafadhali asante Kingereza ndiyo siyo —
Basque Euskara kaixo agur mesedez Eskerrik asko ingelesa bai ez —
Japanese nihongo konnichiwa sayonara kudasai arigatou eigo hai iie kanpai
Esperanto Esperanto saluton gis la revido mi petas dankon la angla jes ne je via sano
Finnish suomi päivää näkemiin ole hyvä kiitos englanti kyllä ei kippis
Indonesian bahasa Indonesia selamat pagi selamat tinggal5 tolong terima kasih bahasa
Inggris ya tidak —
Tok Pisin Tok Pisin gut de gut bai plis tenkyu Inglis yes nogat —
Portuguese Português olá adeus Por favor obrigado Inglês sim não saúde
Renegade, mosquito, mustang, booby—English uses many words with Spanish origins. In fact, some scholars say Spanish has contributed 10,000 words to English.
A Linguistic Fiesta
Many adopted Spanish words are food terms, such as tamale, taco, salsa, cilantro, guacamole, enchilada, oregano, and burrito. They are usually used in their original Spanish forms. Others, such as tuna, which comes from the Spanish atún, are variations of the original.
Other food words are of American Indian origin, but came into English via Spanish. Tomato, for instance, is derived from the Spanish tomate, a corruption of the Nahuatl word tomatl. Chocolate comes from the Nahuatl word xocolatl. Potato comes from papa, meaning white potato in the Inca language, Quechua; and batata, sweet potato in the Taino Indian language of the Caribbean. Banana, on the other hand, entered Spanish from the West African languages of Wolof, Mandingo, and Fulani.
Animal Names
A number of animal words went directly from Indian languages into Spanish and then English. Puma originated in Quechua, while jaguar comes from yaguar, a word of the Guarani who live in what is now Paraguay, and iguana is a modification of iwana, used by the Arawak and Carib of the West Indies.
Riding Through the Desert
When Americans began exploring the Southwest in the early 19th century they encountered an established Mexican culture, which has provided English with many everyday words. Some involve horseback riding, including rodeo, lasso, and lariat, since the horse was a key part of frontier life for both Mexicans and Americans.
Ranch, a common English word today, hails from the Mexican Spanish rancho, meaning ranch, settlement, or meat ration.
Sailing the Spanish Main
Hurricane, tobacco, and hammock came to English from the Caribbean. In the 17th and 18th centuries American and English traders plied the ports of the West Indies and South America. Weather often required extended stays in these ports, acquainting the English speakers with Spanish culture.
In addition, buccaneers in search of treasure sailed "the Spanish Main," the South American mainland from the Orinoco River in present-day Venezuela to Panama. It is likely they also acquired many Spanish words now used in English.
Common Words with Spanish Origins
Alligator: el lagarto, the lizard
Booby: bobo, silly or selfish, from the Latin for stammering, balbus
Bronco: meaning wild or rough
Cafeteria: cafetería, a coffee shop
Cargo: cargar, to load
Cigar, Cigarette: cigarro
Comrade: camarada, old Spanish for barracks company or roommate
Guerrilla: a small raiding party or fighting force
Hoosegow: from juzgado, a tribunal or courtroom, past participle of juzgar, to judge
Mustang: mestengo or mesteño, a stray animal
Patio: courtyard in Spanish
Peccadillo: a form of pecado, to sin
Renegade: renegado, deserter or outlaw
Savvy: saber, to know
Tornado: tornar, to turn, tronada, thunderstorm
Vamoose: vamos, let's go
Words with the same meaning in both languages include aficionado, armada, barracuda, mosquito, tobacco, and vanilla.
American Indian Loan Words
by Holly Hartman
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From their earliest contact with traders and explorers, American Indians borrowed foreign words, often to describe things not previously encountered. In this way, Russian was the source of the Alaskan Yupik word for "cat" and an Athabaskan word for "bullets." Native Canadian groups adopted French terms still in use, and southwestern groups in what is now the U.S. borrowed numerous Spanish terms.
The language exchange went both ways. Today, thousands of place names across North America have Indian origins—as do hundreds of everyday English words.
Many of these "loan words" are nouns from the Algonquian languages that were once widespread along the Atlantic coast. English colonists, encountering unfamiliar plants and animals—among them moose, opossum, and skunk—borrowed Indian terms to name them. Pronunciations generally changed, and sometimes the newcomers shortened words they found difficult; for instance, "pocohiquara" became "hickory."
Some U.S. English Words with Indian Origins
anorak from the Greenlandic Inuit "annoraq"
bayou from the Choctaw "bayuk"
chipmunk from the Ojibwa "ajidamoon," red squirrel
hickory from the Virginia Algonquian "pocohiquara"
hominy from the Virginia Algonquian "uskatahomen"
igloo from the Canadian Inuit "iglu," house
RELATED LINKS
American Indian Tribes
Spanish Loan Words
Asian Loan Words
Foreign Words and Phrases
kayak from the Alaskan Yupik "qayaq"
moccasin from the Virginia Algonquian
moose from the Eastern Abenaki "mos"
papoose from the Narragansett "papoos," child
pecan from the Illinois "pakani"
powwow from the Narragansett "powwaw," shaman
quahog from the Narragansett "poquauhock"
squash from the Narragansett "askutasquash"
succotash from the Narragansett "msickquatash," boiled corn
tepee from the Sioux "tipi," dwelling
toboggan from the Micmac "topaghan"
tomahawk from the Virginia Algonquian "tamahaac"
totem from the Ojibwa "nindoodem," my totem
wampum from the Massachusett "wampumpeag"
wigwam from the Eastern Abenaki "wik'wom"
